skycultures/chinese_manchu/description.md
Fishing and hunting peoples represented by the Manchus have held traditions of stellar veneration since ancient times. The oldest and most primitive form of worship in Shamanism is the sacred reverence for celestial phenomena such as the cosmic dome, the sun, moon, and stars, often referred to as "worship of Heaven." Under the specific geographical and climatic conditions of northern China, the Manchu ancestors, through sustained and meticulous observation of the night sky over long-term production and life practices, developed a unique system of astronomical cognition and veneration.
In the ancient beliefs of Manchu Shamanism, the cosmos did not initially have a fixed form. Mythology describes: "In the earliest, earliest times, Heaven had no shape; it flowed like water and drifted like clouds." This reflects a naive imagination of the chaotic state before the separation of heaven and earth.
As observation deepened, the ancestors conceived various explanations for the universe's structure. One view holds that "the blue sky is lofty and vast, boundless," a direct description of the immense cosmos. Another widespread concept is the "Nine Heavens" or "Ninety-Nine Heavens" theory, positing that the cosmos naturally divides into nine layers (or ninety-nine). The uppermost layer is the Celestial Realm or Fire Realm (also called the Realm of Light), further divided into three sub-layers, inhabited by celestial deities, the sun, moon, stars, and gods of wind, thunder, rain, and snow. The middle layer is also in three sub-layers, the world where humans, animals, and lesser spirits multiply. The lower layer is the Earthly Realm or Realm of Darkness, again in three sub-layers, where the Earth Mother goddess and demons reside.
Additionally, there exists the concept of the universe as a "Cosmic Tree," "Heavenly Tree," or "Shaman Tree," believed to grow at the center of the sky. Its roots are the Earthly Realm, its trunk the Middle Realm, and its branches, divided into seven or nine forks, form the Divine Realm. These beliefs together constitute the shamanistic view of a multi-layered, interconnected cosmos where heaven and earth communicate.
The core of Manchu ancestral astronomical knowledge lies in the practical observation of celestial phenomena. Living in high-latitude, frigid regions with long winters and clear night skies, their stellar system particularly emphasizes winter constellations. They determined seasons, direction, time, and weather changes by observing the rise/set times, positions, and trajectories of specific constellations, directly guiding production and daily life. For example, observing the direction of the "dipper's handle" of the Nadan usiha (Big Dipper) — "when the dipper handle points north, winter reigns over the land"; judging the deep night hour by the position of the Ilan usiha (Orion's Belt); predicting wind and snow by observing changes in the form of Gas'ha (Eagle constellation). Such experiences crystallized into rich astronomical proverbs, such as "When the eagle (star) falls in the western sky, the sun peeks over the mountains" (foretelling dawn) and "When stars braid their hair, heavy snow will fall in succession."
Star worship ceremonies themselves were closely tied to seasonal nodes. For instance, ceremonies held with the first snow prayed for bountiful winter hunts, while those in the first lunar month aimed to expel pestilence and pray for peace. This method of "determining time, direction, and the year" based on stellar movements formed an effective primitive calendrical system developed by the Manchu ancestors over long ages.
In Manchu celestial worship, the sun holds a supremely important position. For ancestors living in the severe northern cold, the sun was the fundamental source of light, warmth, and life energy. Hence, solar deity worship was widespread in myths, rituals, and rock art. Closely related to sun worship is the veneration of the Fire Deity. Considered the "primordial incarnation of the Celestial Deity," the Fire Deity governed the light and heat of the cosmos, master of the world's brightness, darkness, and the alternation of seasons, and was revered as the "chief deity" among natural spirits in some ancient shamanic ceremonies.
In contrast, worship of the moon was relatively weaker in early times, likely due to the fishing and hunting lifestyle: snow reflection provided some illumination, while moonlight cast stark shadows of humans and animals, disadvantageous for stealth during hunting. As society gradually shifted towards settlement and agriculture, and under the influence of Central Plains culture, observations and related myths about the moon gradually became more abundant.
Star worship was a significant ritual activity for the Manchus and their ancestors, historically as important as ancestor worship. Ceremonies were typically held on clear winter nights, often during the first lunar month or at specific seasonal nodes. The rituals were solemn, usually involving extinguishing lights, setting up an altar in the courtyard facing the Big Dipper or eastern stars, making blood sacrifices (often using piglets or fowl), using wooden utensils and straw as vessels, and the communal sharing of sacrificial meat by the clan. The shaman would chant "invocations to the star deities," believing that calling upon them made the stars shine brighter. In some large-scale collective star ceremonies, activities like piling firewood and setting it ablaze (called the "star bridge") and fire-skill competitions were held. The purposes of star worship included praying for blessings, dispelling pestilence, celebrating harvests, and beseeching the smooth passage of the shaman's soul to the celestial realm. Records of these ancient customs can be found in Qing dynasty documents such as the Jilin Tongzhi, Jilin Jiuwenlu, and the Imperially Commissioned Manchu Rites for Sacrificing to Spirits and Heaven.
Many traditional Manchu constellations are closely linked to the narrative of their creation myth, The Heavenly Palace War. The core of this myth is the cosmic battle between the three goddesses—the Sky Goddess Abka hehe, the Earth Goddess Banaji hehe, and the Star-Spreading Goddess Elden hehe (also called Elden mama)—and the nine-headed demon Yeruri.
The Star-Spreading Goddess Elden hehe governs light and scattered stars using a birch-bark bag. In the myth, she creates the sun and moon from the eyes of Abka hehe. To aid her in star-spreading, the Fire Goddess Tumu shed her luminous fur into the sky to become stars, leaving herself bare. She then swung from east to west beneath the Ilan usiha (Orion's Belt), with the Great Orion Nebula (M42) being her last flicker of light. The Milky Way is the "mountain of stars" Elden hehe gathered to block Yeruri's path.
The movement of stars is also explained mythologically: the demon Yeruri once stole Elden hehe's star bag and later threw it westward. Elden hehe chased from east to west to retrieve it. Ever since, stars have always risen in the east and moved westward.
Several constellations are assigned mythological roles. The origin of Nadan Narhū (the Pleiades) is as follows: when the Fire Goddess Tumu was about to extinguish, the goddess Nadan emerged from Elden's bag and transformed into hundreds of small stars amidst the evil winds stirred by Yeruri, forming the Pleiades cluster, becoming the leading star deity of the stellar array.
Singgeri usiha (the Rat Star) is the dawn-greeting Rat Goddess. Usiha Buruhun (the Dawn Beast constellation) is the three-eared, six-eyed Dawn Beast dispatched by Abka hehe. They rise before winter dawn, facing east to welcome and guide the sun's rays, preventing Yeruri from causing trouble in the pre-dawn darkness.
Siri Mama (the Carp Star Goddess) transformed into a carp to search for Yeruri when he fled into a river, which is why carps in the world prefer dwelling in deep water. Taci Mama is the timekeeping star entrusted by Abka hehe to measure time for the deities day and night.
Furthermore, the myth explains seasonal changes through celestial phenomena: the giant star where the Snow Deity resided, called the "Snow Star" or "Cold Star" (possibly Antares, α Sco), was split in two by Abka hehe. One half remained in the sky, the other fell to earth and transformed into the northern sacred mountain "Nimanggi Uyan hada" (meaning "Snow Peak", Gorod-Makit Mountain in modern Russia). Consequently, the Snow Deity dwells in two places, and its residence determines the season—when in the sky, spring blooms and flowers flourish; when on earth, heavy snow blankets the land for years. This star (or the mountain derived from it) is also called "Niyengniyeri" Sacred Mountain (meaning "spring"), becoming a marker for seasonal transition.
The stellar nomenclature in this Manchu sky culture comprises two distinct layers. The core consists of over 20 traditional shamanistic constellations (such as Nadan Narhū and Gasha), whose names originate from the Manchu language and its associated mythology. These constellations primarily name prominent star groups in the northern night sky using familiar animals, objects, or mythological figures. The remaining constellations are translations of traditional Chinese xingguans adopted officially during the Qing dynasty. It is important to distinguish these two sources; the native Manchu names apply specifically to the traditional constellations, not to the sinicized star names introduced later.
Integration with the Traditional Chinese Constellation System: After the establishment of the Qing dynasty, with the sinicization of state institutions, official astronomical agencies gradually adopted the traditional Chinese constellation system (Three Enclosures and Twenty-Eight Mansions) for astronomical observation and calendar compilation, translating many constellation names into Manchu. However, among the folk in Northeast China, the aforementioned traditional shamanistic constellation system persisted, intertwined with ancient memories of production and life, myths, legends, and some folk customs, constituting the older, more indigenous layer of Manchu stellar culture. As late as the 20th century, a small number of people in Northeast China still used these shamanistic constellations.
Stellarium includes over 20 of these shamanistic constellations. It also uses asterism lines to represent the xingguans(Chinese costellations) from official Qing dynasty star catalogs (such as the Yixiang Kaocheng).
It should be noted that some of the connecting lines in the traditional Manchu asterisms — especially those representing imaginative or symbolic parts of the figures — are artistic interpretations from historical hand-drawn charts and do not correspond precisely to actual stars. In order to preserve the overall shape of these constellations as traditionally depicted, lines occasionally link to stars fainter than 6th magnitude. This does not imply that the original culture recognized or included such faint stars; it is merely a graphical means to render the envisioned form.
All traditional Manchu constellation names in this sky culture originate from the Manchu language. Since the original ethnographic research materials recorded these constellation names and descriptions exclusively in Chinese, the authoritative original Manchu spelling is not directly attested and has been reconstructed. For reference, the corresponding Chinese Pinyin (Chinese phonetic transcription) of the recorded Chinese names is appended to the byname field.
The native names provide these names in the Manchu script using Unicode. However, it is important to note that the Unicode standard shares the same code block for the Manchu and Mongolian scripts. Most system fonts default to displaying Mongolian glyphs. Therefore, to correctly view the Manchu script in the native names, users need to install and apply a dedicated Manchu-supporting font. Otherwise, the text may display with incorrect Mongolian glyphs.
The transliteration names uniformly provide the Möllendorff Latin transliteration of the Manchu names.
To reliably present the authentic visual form of the Manchu script, the reconstructed spellings for the core traditional constellations are also displayed as image files in the Constellations section below.
Nadan Narhū (Chinese: 那丹那拉呼, English: Seven Maidens) corresponds to the Pleiades star cluster in the constellation Taurus. One of the most prominent open clusters in the winter night sky. In Manchu mythology, it is the leading star deity or assistant to the Star-Spreading Goddess. Rising in the east at dusk, it is regarded as the commander leading the westward procession of winter star groups. It is a crucial astronomical marker for determining the onset of winter and for nighttime timekeeping.
Gasha (Chinese: 嘎思哈, English: Divine Eagle) is a vast constellation spanning the modern constellations of Orion, Taurus, Auriga, etc. Envisioned as a soaring eagle, it dominates the mid-winter sky and is one of the primary stellar deities worshipped by shamans, visible only in autumn and winter. Its form and position were used for observing seasons and predicting weather. Its right leg is mythologically led by the Pleiades (Nadan Narhū), while its left leg is bound by a celestial rope (associated with the Eridanus constellation).
Enduri Sengge (Chinese: 恩都力僧固, English: God of Hedgehogs) corresponds to the Cygnus constellation. A prominent bright star group located within the Milky Way, it is also called the “Rafter Star” or “Hedgehog Star.” It was venerated as a deity guarding the night and the home, and served as an important directional star in the northern sky.
Taci Mama (Chinese: 塔其妈妈, English: Taci Goddess) corresponds to the Cassiopeia constellation. Its distinctive W-shaped constellation resembles a knot or a winnowing basket, imagined as a snake or a dipper. It functioned as an important timekeeping star; changes in its position and angle in the night sky were used to estimate the hour. Perennially visible at high northern latitudes, it served as a crucial navigational and chronological reference.
Tobo usiha (Chinese: 托包乌西哈, English: Hut) is associated with the Perseus constellation. It was imagined as a resting place (a hut) for the shaman’s soul during its ascent to heaven.
Enduri Tehe (Chinese: 恩都力特克, English: God of the Stand) corresponds to the Pegasus constellation, notably its “Great Square.” Located in the southern sky and moving westward, this constellation was used by shamans to observe signs of wind and snow. The Great Square of Pegasus is a very prominent feature of the autumn night sky.
Ilan usiha (Chinese: 依兰乌西哈, English: Three Stars) corresponds to Orion’s Belt. These three bright stars aligned in a row are one of the most distinctive markers of the winter night sky. As brilliant seasonal and timekeeping stars, their rising in the east at dusk signals the heart of winter; their movement can be used to estimate the time in the latter half of the night.
Nadan usiha (Chinese: 那丹乌西哈, English: Seven Stars) corresponds to the Big Dipper constellation in Ursa Major. It is the most important star group for nighttime timekeeping and identifying the northern direction. The pointing of its “dipper handle” indicates the seasons, and it holds significant protective symbolism in Manchu culture.
Singgeri usiha (Chinese: 兴恶里乌西哈, English: Rat) is associated with the Leo constellation. Known as the Dawn-Greeting Rat Deity, it rises in the east before winter dawn together with the Dawn Beast (Buruhun) to welcome the sunrise. It was also used for divining snow volume and wind strength.
Morin usiha (Chinese: 莫林乌西哈, English: Horse) is a seasonal timekeeping concept, not a single fixed constellation. It is a collective name for four bright stars that rise in the east and set in the west: Capella (α Aur) visible at dusk after winter begins, Sirius (α CMa) rising in the evening (Xu hour), and Arcturus (α Boo) and Spica (α Vir) rising at dawn.
Wadan (Chinese: 瓦丹星, English: The Celestial Altar) is associated with the Corvus constellation. It represents the celestial location where ritual implements are stored. This star must be worshipped when someone begins learning shamanism or when a shaman passes away.
Imcin (Chinese: 尼玛沁星, English: Drum), along with the Drumstick Star (Gisun), is considered part of the shaman’s ritual instrument constellations, spanning the area of Aries, Triangulum, and Andromeda. It represents the divine drum used by the Star-Spreading Goddess.
Siri Mama (Chinese: 西离妈妈, English: Goddess of Carp) is an constellation in the regions of Lynx and Camelopardalis. Imagined as a fish star transformed from a person, she governs the fish of glacial rivers. Observing this star was used for divining the abundance or scarcity of the winter fishing and hunting season.
Terkin Usiha Mama (Chinese: 妥亲乌西哈妈妈, English: Goddess of the Staircase Stars) is associated with Virgo and Coma Berenices. Believed to be the “stairway to heaven,” it is represented by a goddess figure in a seated posture offering assistance to the shaman’s soul during its ascent.
Usiha Buruhun (Chinese: 乌西哈布鲁古, English: Star of Buruhun / The Dawn Beast) is an constellation in Boötes, Canes Venatici, and Coma Berenices. Depicting the Dawn Beast, it rises in the east and sets in the west, serving as the herald that guides the sunrise before winter dawn.
Fodoho usiha (Chinese: 佛朵乌西哈, English: Willow) is located in the head of the Hydra constellation. Positioned low in the southern sky, it was considered a divine star governing human fertility and was also used for divining the year’s harvest and epidemics.
Asu usiha (Chinese: 阿苏乌西哈, English: Net) is associated with the Hercules constellation, and its ring-like structure may also relate to Corona Borealis. Imagined as the hunting net used by the Hunting God (Banda mafa), it reflects the characteristics of a fishing and hunting lifestyle.
Nimaha usiha (Chinese: 尼玛哈乌西哈, English: Fishhook) corresponds to the Scorpius constellation. A summer stellar deity commonly called the “Warm Star,” its appearance was used to determine the farming season and to divine agricultural abundance or failure.
Sureken usiha (Chinese: 苏勒肯乌西哈, English: Star of Wisdom) is described as being composed of four bright stars in the southern sky, shaped like a dipper. The Star Deity of Wisdom primarily blesses girls with intelligence and beauty and is revered as a great female deity.
This constellation is recorded in another work by Fu Yuguang, but no corresponding modern constellation is specified in the source material. Based on the provided star chart and descriptions such as "southern sky" and "bright stars," a plausible speculation is that it may also point to the Corvus constellation. This would mean it occupies the same region of the modern sky as the Wadan star, and could potentially represent an alternative mythological interpretation or naming of the same stellar group within a different regional or transmission lineage. Another view suggests a possible correspondence to the four stars θ, η, γ, and δ in Cancer (the additional stars included in the chart might represent the M44 cluster). However, this interpretation is difficult to reconcile with the descriptions "bright stars" and "southern sky."
To maintain academic rigor, this constellation is not rendered in Stellarium's celestial view.
This sky culture was contributed by Lyu Haocheng. [email protected]
I thank to Jalakū and others from the Ursan Dictionary project for proofreading the Manchu transliterations and providing the Manchu font.
CC BY-SA 4.0