Doc/library/os.rst
!os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.. module:: os :synopsis: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
Source code: :source:Lib/os.py
This module provides a portable way of using operating system dependent
functionality. If you just want to read or write a file see :func:open, if
you want to manipulate paths, see the :mod:os.path module, and if you want to
read all the lines in all the files on the command line see the :mod:fileinput
module. For creating temporary files and directories see the :mod:tempfile
module, and for high-level file and directory handling see the :mod:shutil
module.
Notes on the availability of these functions:
The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of Python is
such that as long as the same functionality is available, it uses the same
interface; for example, the function os.stat(path) returns stat
information about path in the same format (which happens to have originated
with the POSIX interface).
Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also available
through the :mod:!os module, but using them is of course a threat to
portability.
All functions accepting path or file names accept both bytes and string objects, and result in an object of the same type, if a path or file name is returned.
On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawnp are not supported.
On WebAssembly platforms, Android and iOS, large parts of the :mod:!os module are
not available or behave differently. APIs related to processes (e.g.
:func:~os.fork, :func:~os.execve) and resources (e.g. :func:~os.nice)
are not available. Others like :func:~os.getuid and :func:~os.getpid are
emulated or stubs. WebAssembly platforms also lack support for signals (e.g.
:func:~os.kill, :func:~os.wait).
.. note::
All functions in this module raise :exc:OSError (or subclasses thereof) in
the case of invalid or inaccessible file names and paths, or other arguments
that have the correct type, but are not accepted by the operating system.
.. exception:: error
An alias for the built-in :exc:OSError exception.
.. data:: name
The name of the operating system dependent module imported. The following
names have currently been registered: 'posix', 'nt',
'java'.
.. seealso::
:data:sys.platform has a finer granularity. :func:os.uname gives
system-dependent version information.
The :mod:`platform` module provides detailed checks for the
system's identity.
.. _os-filenames: .. _filesystem-encoding:
In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables are
represented using the string type. On some systems, decoding these strings to
and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the operating system. Python
uses the :term:filesystem encoding and error handler to perform this
conversion (see :func:sys.getfilesystemencoding).
The :term:filesystem encoding and error handler are configured at Python
startup by the :c:func:PyConfig_Read function: see
:c:member:~PyConfig.filesystem_encoding and
:c:member:~PyConfig.filesystem_errors members of :c:type:PyConfig.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
On some systems, conversion using the file system encoding may fail. In this
case, Python uses the :ref:surrogateescape encoding error handler <surrogateescape>, which means that undecodable bytes are replaced by a
Unicode character U+DC\ xx on decoding, and these are again
translated to the original byte on encoding.
The :term:file system encoding <filesystem encoding and error handler> must
guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system
encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise
:exc:UnicodeError.
See also the :term:locale encoding.
.. _utf8-mode:
.. versionadded:: 3.7
See :pep:540 for more details.
.. versionchanged:: 3.15
Python UTF-8 mode is now enabled by default (:pep:686).
It may be disabled by setting :envvar:PYTHONUTF8=0 <PYTHONUTF8> as
an environment variable or by using the :option:-X utf8=0 <-X> command line option.
The Python UTF-8 Mode ignores the :term:locale encoding and forces the usage
of the UTF-8 encoding:
filesystem encoding <filesystem encoding and error handler>.sys.getfilesystemencoding returns 'utf-8'.locale.getpreferredencoding returns 'utf-8' (the do_setlocale
argument has no effect).sys.stdin, :data:sys.stdout, and :data:sys.stderr all use
UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the surrogateescape
:ref:error handler <error-handlers> being enabled for :data:sys.stdin
and :data:sys.stdout (:data:sys.stderr continues to use
backslashreplace as it does in the default locale-aware mode)os.device_encoding returns 'utf-8' rather than the
device encoding.Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden by
:envvar:PYTHONIOENCODING (just as they can be in the default locale-aware
mode).
As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:
os.fsdecode and :func:os.fsencode use the UTF-8 encoding.open, :func:io.open, and :func:codecs.open use the UTF-8
encoding by default. However, they still use the strict error handler by
default so that attempting to open a binary file in text mode is likely
to raise an exception rather than producing nonsense data.The :ref:Python UTF-8 Mode <utf8-mode> is enabled by default.
It can be disabled using the :option:-X utf8=0 <-X> command line
option or the :envvar:PYTHONUTF8=0 <PYTHONUTF8> environment variable.
The Python UTF-8 Mode can only be disabled at Python startup. Its value
can be read from :data:sys.flags.utf8_mode <sys.flags>.
If the UTF-8 mode is disabled, the interpreter defaults to using
the current locale settings, unless the current locale is identified
as a legacy ASCII-based locale (as described for :envvar:PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE),
and locale coercion is either disabled or fails.
In such legacy locales, the interpreter will default to enabling UTF-8 mode
unless explicitly instructed not to do so.
See also the :ref:UTF-8 mode on Windows <win-utf8-mode>
and the :term:filesystem encoding and error handler.
.. _os-procinfo:
These functions and data items provide information and operate on the current process and user.
.. function:: ctermid()
Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the process.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: environ
A :term:mapping object where keys and values are strings that represent
the process environment. For example, environ['HOME'] is the pathname
of your home directory (on some platforms), and is equivalent to
getenv("HOME") in C.
This mapping is captured the first time the :mod:!os module is imported,
typically during Python startup as part of processing :file:site.py. Changes
to the environment made after this time are not reflected in :data:os.environ,
except for changes made by modifying :data:os.environ directly.
This mapping may be used to modify the environment as well as query the
environment. :func:putenv will be called automatically when the mapping
is modified.
On Unix, keys and values use :func:sys.getfilesystemencoding and
'surrogateescape' error handler. Use :data:environb if you would like
to use a different encoding.
On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase. This also applies when
getting, setting, or deleting an item. For example,
environ['monty'] = 'python' maps the key 'MONTY' to the value
'python'.
.. note::
Calling :func:`putenv` directly does not change :data:`os.environ`, so it's better
to modify :data:`os.environ`.
.. note::
On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting ``environ`` may
cause memory leaks. Refer to the system documentation for
:c:func:`!putenv`.
You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment variables.
:func:unsetenv will be called automatically when an item is deleted from
:data:os.environ, and when one of the :meth:~dict.pop or
:meth:~dict.clear methods is called.
.. seealso::
The :func:`os.reload_environ` function.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Updated to support :pep:584's merge (|) and update (|=) operators.
.. data:: environb
Bytes version of :data:environ: a :term:mapping object where both keys
and values are :class:bytes objects representing the process environment.
:data:environ and :data:environb are synchronized (modifying
:data:environb updates :data:environ, and vice versa).
:data:environb is only available if :const:supports_bytes_environ is
True.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Updated to support :pep:584's merge (|) and update (|=) operators.
.. function:: reload_environ()
The :data:os.environ and :data:os.environb mappings are a cache of
environment variables at the time that Python started.
As such, changes to the current process environment are not reflected
if made outside Python, or by :func:os.putenv or :func:os.unsetenv.
Use :func:!os.reload_environ to update :data:os.environ and :data:os.environb
with any such changes to the current process environment.
.. warning::
This function is not thread-safe. Calling it while the environment is
being modified in another thread is an undefined behavior. Reading from
:data:os.environ or :data:os.environb, or calling :func:os.getenv
while reloading, may return an empty result.
.. versionadded:: 3.14
.. function:: chdir(path) fchdir(fd) getcwd() :noindex:
These functions are described in :ref:os-file-dir.
.. function:: fsencode(filename)
Encode :term:path-like <path-like object> filename to the
:term:filesystem encoding and error handler; return :class:bytes
unchanged.
:func:fsdecode is the reverse function.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Support added to accept objects implementing the :class:os.PathLike
interface.
.. function:: fsdecode(filename)
Decode the :term:path-like <path-like object> filename from the
:term:filesystem encoding and error handler; return :class:str
unchanged.
:func:fsencode is the reverse function.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Support added to accept objects implementing the :class:os.PathLike
interface.
.. function:: fspath(path)
Return the file system representation of the path.
If :class:str or :class:bytes is passed in, it is returned unchanged.
Otherwise :meth:~os.PathLike.__fspath__ is called and its value is
returned as long as it is a :class:str or :class:bytes object.
In all other cases, :exc:TypeError is raised.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. class:: PathLike
An :term:abstract base class for objects representing a file system path,
e.g. :class:pathlib.PurePath.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. method:: fspath() :abstractmethod:
Return the file system path representation of the object.
The method should only return a :class:`str` or :class:`bytes` object,
with the preference being for :class:`str`.
.. function:: getenv(key, default=None)
Return the value of the environment variable key as a string if it exists, or
default if it doesn't. key is a string. Note that
since :func:getenv uses :data:os.environ, the mapping of :func:getenv is
similarly also captured on import, and the function may not reflect
future environment changes.
On Unix, keys and values are decoded with :func:sys.getfilesystemencoding
and 'surrogateescape' error handler. Use :func:os.getenvb if you
would like to use a different encoding.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. function:: getenvb(key, default=None)
Return the value of the environment variable key as bytes if it exists, or
default if it doesn't. key must be bytes. Note that
since :func:getenvb uses :data:os.environb, the mapping of :func:getenvb is
similarly also captured on import, and the function may not reflect
future environment changes.
:func:getenvb is only available if :const:supports_bytes_environ
is True.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: get_exec_path(env=None)
Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named
executable, similar to a shell, when launching a process.
env, when specified, should be an environment variable dictionary
to lookup the PATH in.
By default, when env is None, :data:environ is used.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: getegid()
Return the effective group id of the current process. This corresponds to the "set id" bit on the file being executed in the current process.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: geteuid()
.. index:: single: user; effective id
Return the current process's effective user id.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: getgid()
.. index:: single: process; group
Return the real group id of the current process.
.. availability:: Unix.
The function is a stub on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. function:: getgrouplist(user, group, /)
Return list of group ids that user belongs to. If group is not in the list, it is included; typically, group is specified as the group ID field from the password record for user, because that group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: getgroups()
Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. note::
On macOS, :func:`getgroups` behavior differs somewhat from
other Unix platforms. If the Python interpreter was built with a
deployment target of ``10.5`` or earlier, :func:`getgroups` returns
the list of effective group ids associated with the current user process;
this list is limited to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16,
and may be modified by calls to :func:`setgroups` if suitably privileged.
If built with a deployment target greater than ``10.5``,
:func:`getgroups` returns the current group access list for the user
associated with the effective user id of the process; the group access
list may change over the lifetime of the process, it is not affected by
calls to :func:`setgroups`, and its length is not limited to 16. The
deployment target value can be obtained with
:func:`sysconfig.get_config_var('MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET') <sysconfig.get_config_var>`.
.. function:: getlogin()
Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal of the
process. For most purposes, it is more useful to use
:func:getpass.getuser since the latter checks the environment variables
:envvar:LOGNAME or :envvar:USERNAME to find out who the user is, and
falls back to pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0] to get the login name of the
current real user id.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI.
.. function:: getpgid(pid)
Return the process group id of the process with process id pid. If pid is 0, the process group id of the current process is returned.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: getpgrp()
.. index:: single: process; group
Return the id of the current process group.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: getpid()
.. index:: single: process; id
Return the current process id.
The function is a stub on WASI, see :ref:wasm-availability for more
information.
.. function:: getppid()
.. index:: single: process; id of parent
Return the parent's process id. When the parent process has exited, on Unix the id returned is the one of the init process (1), on Windows it is still the same id, which may be already reused by another process.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows.
.. function:: getpriority(which, who)
.. index:: single: process; scheduling priority
Get program scheduling priority. The value which is one of
:const:PRIO_PROCESS, :const:PRIO_PGRP, or :const:PRIO_USER, and who
is interpreted relative to which (a process identifier for
:const:PRIO_PROCESS, process group identifier for :const:PRIO_PGRP, and a
user ID for :const:PRIO_USER). A zero value for who denotes
(respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process,
or the real user ID of the calling process.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: PRIO_PROCESS PRIO_PGRP PRIO_USER
Parameters for the :func:getpriority and :func:setpriority functions.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS PRIO_DARWIN_BG PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI
Parameters for the :func:getpriority and :func:setpriority functions.
.. availability:: macOS
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. function:: getresuid()
Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process's real, effective, and saved user ids.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: getresgid()
Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process's real, effective, and saved group ids.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: getuid()
.. index:: single: user; id
Return the current process's real user id.
.. availability:: Unix.
The function is a stub on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. function:: initgroups(username, gid, /)
Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of
the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified
group id.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: putenv(key, value, /)
.. index:: single: environment variables; setting
Set the environment variable named key to the string value. Such
changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with :func:os.system,
:func:popen or :func:fork and :func:execv.
Assignments to items in :data:os.environ are automatically translated into
corresponding calls to :func:putenv; however, calls to :func:putenv
don't update :data:os.environ, so it is actually preferable to assign to items
of :data:os.environ. This also applies to :func:getenv and :func:getenvb, which
respectively use :data:os.environ and :data:os.environb in their implementations.
See also the :func:os.reload_environ function.
.. note::
On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting ``environ`` may
cause memory leaks. Refer to the system documentation for :c:func:`!putenv`.
.. audit-event:: os.putenv key,value os.putenv
.. versionchanged:: 3.9 The function is now always available.
.. function:: setegid(egid, /)
Set the current process's effective group id.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: seteuid(euid, /)
Set the current process's effective user id.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: setgid(gid, /)
Set the current process' group id.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: setgroups(groups, /)
Set the list of supplemental group ids associated with the current process to groups. groups must be a sequence, and each element must be an integer identifying a group. This operation is typically available only to the superuser.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. note:: On macOS, the length of groups may not exceed the
system-defined maximum number of effective group ids, typically 16.
See the documentation for :func:getgroups for cases where it may not
return the same group list set by calling setgroups().
.. function:: setns(fd, nstype=0)
Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace.
See the :manpage:setns(2) and :manpage:namespaces(7) man pages for more
details.
If fd refers to a :file:/proc/{pid}/ns/ link, setns() reassociates the
calling thread with the namespace associated with that link,
and nstype may be set to one of the
:ref:CLONE_NEW* constants <os-unshare-clone-flags>
to impose constraints on the operation
(0 means no constraints).
Since Linux 5.8, fd may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained from
:func:~os.pidfd_open. In this case, setns() reassociates the calling thread
into one or more of the same namespaces as the thread referred to by fd.
This is subject to any constraints imposed by nstype,
which is a bit mask combining one or more of the
:ref:CLONE_NEW* constants <os-unshare-clone-flags>,
e.g. setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID).
The caller's memberships in unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.
fd can be any object with a :meth:~io.IOBase.fileno method, or a raw file descriptor.
This example reassociates the thread with the init process's network namespace::
fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
os.close(fd)
.. availability:: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. seealso::
The :func:`~os.unshare` function.
.. function:: setpgrp()
Call the system call :c:func:!setpgrp or setpgrp(0, 0) depending on
which version is implemented (if any). See the Unix manual for the semantics.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: setpgid(pid, pgrp, /)
Call the system call :c:func:!setpgid to set the process group id of the
process with id pid to the process group with id pgrp. See the Unix manual
for the semantics.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: setpriority(which, who, priority)
.. index:: single: process; scheduling priority
Set program scheduling priority. The value which is one of
:const:PRIO_PROCESS, :const:PRIO_PGRP, or :const:PRIO_USER, and who
is interpreted relative to which (a process identifier for
:const:PRIO_PROCESS, process group identifier for :const:PRIO_PGRP, and a
user ID for :const:PRIO_USER). A zero value for who denotes
(respectively) the calling process, the process group of the calling process,
or the real user ID of the calling process.
priority is a value in the range -20 to 19. The default priority is 0;
lower priorities cause more favorable scheduling.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: setregid(rgid, egid, /)
Set the current process's real and effective group ids.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: setresgid(rgid, egid, sgid, /)
Set the current process's real, effective, and saved group ids.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: setresuid(ruid, euid, suid, /)
Set the current process's real, effective, and saved user ids.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: setreuid(ruid, euid, /)
Set the current process's real and effective user ids.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: getsid(pid, /)
Call the system call :c:func:!getsid. See the Unix manual for the semantics.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: setsid()
Call the system call :c:func:!setsid. See the Unix manual for the semantics.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: setuid(uid, /)
.. index:: single: user; id, setting
Set the current process's user id.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. placed in this section since it relates to errno.... a little weak .. function:: strerror(code, /)
Return the error message corresponding to the error code in code.
On platforms where :c:func:!strerror returns NULL when given an unknown
error number, :exc:ValueError is raised.
.. data:: supports_bytes_environ
True if the native OS type of the environment is bytes (eg. False on
Windows).
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: umask(mask, /)
Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.
The function is a stub on WASI, see :ref:wasm-availability for more
information.
.. function:: uname()
.. index:: single: gethostname() (in module socket) single: gethostbyaddr() (in module socket)
Returns information identifying the current operating system. The return value is an object with five attributes:
sysname - operating system namenodename - name of machine on network (implementation-defined)release - operating system releaseversion - operating system versionmachine - hardware identifierFor backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
like a five-tuple containing :attr:sysname, :attr:nodename,
:attr:release, :attr:version, and :attr:machine
in that order.
Some systems truncate :attr:nodename to 8 characters or to the
leading component; a better way to get the hostname is
:func:socket.gethostname or even
socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname()).
On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the kernel name and version (i.e.,
'Darwin' on macOS and iOS; 'Linux' on Android). :func:platform.uname
can be used to get the user-facing operating system name and version on iOS and
Android.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.
.. function:: unsetenv(key, /)
.. index:: single: environment variables; deleting
Unset (delete) the environment variable named key. Such changes to the
environment affect subprocesses started with :func:os.system, :func:popen or
:func:fork and :func:execv.
Deletion of items in :data:os.environ is automatically translated into a
corresponding call to :func:unsetenv; however, calls to :func:unsetenv
don't update :data:os.environ, so it is actually preferable to delete items of
:data:os.environ.
See also the :func:os.reload_environ function.
.. audit-event:: os.unsetenv key os.unsetenv
.. versionchanged:: 3.9 The function is now always available and is also available on Windows.
.. function:: unshare(flags)
Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them into a
newly created namespace.
See the :manpage:unshare(2)
man page for more details.
The flags argument is a bit mask, combining zero or more of the
:ref:CLONE_* constants <os-unshare-clone-flags>,
that specifies which parts of the execution context should be
unshared from their existing associations and moved to a new namespace.
If the flags argument is 0, no changes are made to the calling process's
execution context.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.16.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. seealso::
The :func:`~os.setns` function.
.. _os-unshare-clone-flags:
Flags to the :func:unshare function, if the implementation supports them.
See :manpage:unshare(2) in the Linux manual
for their exact effect and availability.
.. data:: CLONE_FILES CLONE_FS CLONE_NEWCGROUP CLONE_NEWIPC CLONE_NEWNET CLONE_NEWNS CLONE_NEWPID CLONE_NEWTIME CLONE_NEWUSER CLONE_NEWUTS CLONE_SIGHAND CLONE_SYSVSEM CLONE_THREAD CLONE_VM
.. _os-newstreams:
These functions create new :term:file objects <file object>. (See also
:func:~os.open for opening file descriptors.)
.. function:: fdopen(fd, *args, **kwargs)
Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd. This is an
alias of the :func:open built-in function and accepts the same arguments.
The only difference is that the first argument of :func:fdopen must always
be an integer.
.. _os-fd-ops:
These functions operate on I/O streams referenced using file descriptors.
File descriptors are small integers corresponding to a file that has been opened by the current process. For example, standard input is usually file descriptor 0, standard output is 1, and standard error is 2. Further files opened by a process will then be assigned 3, 4, 5, and so forth. The name "file descriptor" is slightly deceptive; on Unix platforms, sockets and pipes are also referenced by file descriptors.
The :meth:~io.IOBase.fileno method can be used to obtain the file descriptor
associated with a :term:file object when required. Note that using the file
descriptor directly will bypass the file object methods, ignoring aspects such
as internal buffering of data.
.. function:: close(fd)
Close file descriptor fd.
.. note::
This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To close a "file
object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or
:func:`fdopen`, use its :meth:`~io.IOBase.close` method.
.. function:: closerange(fd_low, fd_high, /)
Close all file descriptors from fd_low (inclusive) to fd_high (exclusive), ignoring errors. Equivalent to (but much faster than)::
for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
try:
os.close(fd)
except OSError:
pass
.. function:: copy_file_range(src, dst, count, offset_src=None, offset_dst=None)
Copy count bytes from file descriptor src, starting from offset
offset_src, to file descriptor dst, starting from offset offset_dst.
If offset_src is None, then src is read from the current position;
respectively for offset_dst.
In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by src and dst
must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an :exc:OSError is
raised with :attr:~OSError.errno set to :const:errno.EXDEV.
This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel. Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations, such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of NFS).
The function copies bytes between two file descriptors. Text options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.
The return value is the amount of bytes copied. This could be less than the amount requested.
.. note::
On Linux, :func:`os.copy_file_range` should not be used for copying a
range of a pseudo file from a special filesystem like procfs and sysfs.
It will always copy no bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty
because of a known Linux kernel issue.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. function:: device_encoding(fd)
Return a string describing the encoding of the device associated with fd
if it is connected to a terminal; else return :const:None.
On Unix, if the :ref:Python UTF-8 Mode <utf8-mode> is enabled, return
'UTF-8' rather than the device encoding.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10 On Unix, the function now implements the Python UTF-8 Mode.
.. function:: dup(fd, /)
Return a duplicate of file descriptor fd. The new file descriptor is
:ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
On Windows, when duplicating a standard stream (0: stdin, 1: stdout,
2: stderr), the new file descriptor is :ref:inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
.. availability:: not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4 The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
.. function:: dup2(fd, fd2, inheritable=True)
Duplicate file descriptor fd to fd2, closing the latter first if
necessary. Return fd2. The new file descriptor is :ref:inheritable <fd_inheritance> by default or non-inheritable if inheritable
is False.
.. availability:: not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4 Add the optional inheritable parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Return fd2 on success. Previously, None was always returned.
.. function:: fchmod(fd, mode)
Change the mode of the file given by fd to the numeric mode. See the
docs for :func:chmod for possible values of mode. As of Python 3.3, this
is equivalent to os.chmod(fd, mode).
.. audit-event:: os.chmod path,mode,dir_fd os.fchmod
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13 Added support on Windows.
.. function:: fchown(fd, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of the file given by fd to the numeric uid
and gid. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1. See
:func:chown. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to os.chown(fd, uid, gid).
.. audit-event:: os.chown path,uid,gid,dir_fd os.fchown
.. availability:: Unix.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. function:: fdatasync(fd)
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk. Does not force update of metadata.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. note:: This function is not available on MacOS.
.. function:: fpathconf(fd, name, /)
Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. name
specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the
name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of
standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others). Some platforms define
additional names as well. The names known to the host operating system are
given in the pathconf_names dictionary. For configuration variables not
included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted.
If name is a string and is not known, :exc:ValueError is raised. If a
specific value for name is not supported by the host system, even if it is
included in pathconf_names, an :exc:OSError is raised with
:const:errno.EINVAL for the error number.
As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to os.pathconf(fd, name).
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: fstat(fd)
Get the status of the file descriptor fd. Return a :class:stat_result
object.
As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to os.stat(fd).
.. seealso::
The :func:`.stat` function.
.. function:: fstatvfs(fd, /)
Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with
file descriptor fd, like :func:statvfs. As of Python 3.3, this is
equivalent to os.statvfs(fd).
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: fsync(fd)
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk. On Unix, this calls the
native :c:func:!fsync function; on Windows, the MS :c:func:!_commit function.
If you're starting with a buffered Python :term:file object f, first do
f.flush(), and then do os.fsync(f.fileno()), to ensure that all internal
buffers associated with f are written to disk.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. function:: ftruncate(fd, length, /)
Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor fd, so that it is at
most length bytes in size. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
os.truncate(fd, length).
.. audit-event:: os.truncate fd,length os.ftruncate
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5 Added support for Windows
.. function:: get_blocking(fd, /)
Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor: False if the
:data:O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True if the flag is cleared.
See also :func:set_blocking and :meth:socket.socket.setblocking.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. versionchanged:: 3.12 Added support for pipes on Windows.
.. function:: grantpt(fd, /)
Grant access to the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor fd refers. The file descriptor fd is not closed upon failure.
Calls the C standard library function :c:func:grantpt.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: isatty(fd, /)
Return True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a
tty(-like) device, else False.
.. function:: lockf(fd, cmd, len, /)
Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
fd is an open file descriptor.
cmd specifies the command to use - one of :data:F_LOCK, :data:F_TLOCK,
:data:F_ULOCK or :data:F_TEST.
len specifies the section of the file to lock.
.. audit-event:: os.lockf fd,cmd,len os.lockf
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: F_LOCK F_TLOCK F_ULOCK F_TEST
Flags that specify what action :func:lockf will take.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: login_tty(fd, /)
Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login session. Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the calling process; close fd.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. function:: lseek(fd, pos, whence, /)
Set the current position of file descriptor fd to position pos, modified by whence, and return the new position in bytes relative to the start of the file. Valid values for whence are:
SEEK_SET or 0 -- set pos relative to the beginning of the fileSEEK_CUR or 1 -- set pos relative to the current file positionSEEK_END or 2 -- set pos relative to the end of the fileSEEK_HOLE -- set pos to the next data location, relative to posSEEK_DATA -- set pos to the next data hole, relative to pos.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Add support for :const:`!SEEK_HOLE` and :const:`!SEEK_DATA`.
.. data:: SEEK_SET SEEK_CUR SEEK_END
Parameters to the :func:lseek function and the :meth:~io.IOBase.seek
method on :term:file-like objects <file object>,
for whence to adjust the file position indicator.
:const:SEEK_SET
Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the file.
:const:SEEK_CUR
Adjust the file position relative to the current file position.
:const:SEEK_END
Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.
Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.
.. data:: SEEK_HOLE SEEK_DATA
Parameters to the :func:lseek function and the :meth:~io.IOBase.seek
method on :term:file-like objects <file object>,
for seeking file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.
:data:!SEEK_DATA
Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data,
relative to the seek position.
:data:!SEEK_HOLE
Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole,
relative to the seek position.
A hole is defined as a sequence of zeros.
.. note::
These operations only make sense for filesystems that support them.
.. availability:: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: open(path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)
Open the file path and set various flags according to flags and possibly
its mode according to mode. When computing mode, the current umask value
is first masked out. Return the file descriptor for the newly opened file.
The new file descriptor is :ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time documentation;
flag constants (like :const:O_RDONLY and :const:O_WRONLY) are defined in
the :mod:!os module. In particular, on Windows adding
:const:O_BINARY is needed to open files in binary mode.
This function can support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd> with the dir_fd parameter.
.. audit-event:: open path,mode,flags os.open
.. versionchanged:: 3.4 The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
.. note::
This function is intended for low-level I/O. For normal usage, use the
built-in function :func:`open`, which returns a :term:`file object` with
:meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` and :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.write` methods.
To wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use :func:`fdopen`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
:exc:InterruptedError exception (see :pep:475 for the rationale).
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
The following constants are options for the flags parameter to the
:func:~os.open function. They can be combined using the bitwise OR operator
|. Some of them are not available on all platforms. For descriptions of
their availability and use, consult the :manpage:open(2) manual page on Unix
or the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>_ on Windows.
.. data:: O_RDONLY O_WRONLY O_RDWR O_APPEND O_CREAT O_EXCL O_TRUNC
The above constants are available on Unix and Windows.
.. data:: O_DSYNC O_RSYNC O_SYNC O_NDELAY O_NONBLOCK O_NOCTTY O_CLOEXEC
The above constants are only available on Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Add :data:O_CLOEXEC constant.
.. data:: O_BINARY O_NOINHERIT O_SHORT_LIVED O_TEMPORARY O_RANDOM O_SEQUENTIAL O_TEXT
The above constants are only available on Windows.
.. data:: O_EVTONLY O_FSYNC O_SYMLINK O_NOFOLLOW_ANY
The above constants are only available on macOS.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Add :data:O_EVTONLY, :data:O_FSYNC, :data:O_SYMLINK
and :data:O_NOFOLLOW_ANY constants.
.. data:: O_ASYNC O_DIRECT O_DIRECTORY O_NOFOLLOW O_NOATIME O_PATH O_TMPFILE O_SHLOCK O_EXLOCK
The above constants are extensions and not present if they are not defined by the C library.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Add :data:O_PATH on systems that support it.
Add :data:O_TMPFILE, only available on Linux Kernel 3.11
or newer.
.. function:: openpty()
.. index:: pair: module; pty
Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors
(master, slave) for the pty and the tty, respectively. The new file
descriptors are :ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>. For a (slightly) more
portable approach, use the :mod:pty module.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4 The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.
.. function:: pipe()
Create a pipe. Return a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for
reading and writing, respectively. The new file descriptor is
:ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4 The new file descriptors are now non-inheritable.
.. function:: pipe2(flags, /)
Create a pipe with flags set atomically.
flags can be constructed by ORing together one or more of these values:
:data:O_NONBLOCK, :data:O_CLOEXEC.
Return a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for reading and writing,
respectively.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: posix_fallocate(fd, offset, len, /)
Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified by fd starting from offset and continuing for len bytes.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: posix_fadvise(fd, offset, len, advice, /)
Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus allowing
the kernel to make optimizations.
The advice applies to the region of the file specified by fd starting at
offset and continuing for len bytes.
advice is one of :data:POSIX_FADV_NORMAL, :data:POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL,
:data:POSIX_FADV_RANDOM, :data:POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE,
:data:POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED or :data:POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: POSIX_FADV_NORMAL POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL POSIX_FADV_RANDOM POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED
Flags that can be used in advice in :func:posix_fadvise that specify
the access pattern that is likely to be used.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: pread(fd, n, offset, /)
Read at most n bytes from file descriptor fd at a position of offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.
Return a bytestring containing the bytes read. If the end of the file referred to by fd has been reached, an empty bytes object is returned.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: posix_openpt(oflag, /)
Open and return a file descriptor for a master pseudo-terminal device.
Calls the C standard library function :c:func:posix_openpt. The oflag
argument is used to set file status flags and file access modes as
specified in the manual page of :c:func:posix_openpt of your system.
The returned file descriptor is :ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
If the value :data:O_CLOEXEC is available on the system, it is added to
oflag.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: preadv(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)
Read from a file descriptor fd at a position of offset into mutable
:term:bytes-like objects <bytes-like object> buffers, leaving the file
offset unchanged. Transfer data into each buffer until it is full and then
move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the rest of the data.
The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the following flags:
RWF_HIPRIRWF_NOWAITRWF_DONTCACHEReturn the total number of bytes actually read which can be less than the total capacity of all the objects.
The operating system may set a limit (:func:sysconf value
'SC_IOV_MAX') on the number of buffers that can be used.
Combine the functionality of :func:os.readv and :func:os.pread.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.
Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. data:: RWF_NOWAIT
Do not wait for data which is not immediately available. If this flag is specified, the system call will return instantly if it would have to read data from the backing storage or wait for a lock.
If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of bytes read.
If no bytes were read, it will return -1 and set errno to
:const:errno.EAGAIN.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.14.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. data:: RWF_HIPRI
High priority read/write. Allows block-based filesystems to use polling of the device, which provides lower latency, but may use additional resources.
Currently, on Linux, this feature is usable only on a file descriptor opened
using the :data:O_DIRECT flag.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.6.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. data:: RWF_DONTCACHE
Use uncached buffered IO.
.. availability:: Linux >= 6.14
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. data:: RWF_ATOMIC
Write data atomically. Requires alignment to the device's atomic write unit.
.. availability:: Linux >= 6.11
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. function:: ptsname(fd, /)
Return the name of the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor fd refers. The file descriptor fd is not closed upon failure.
Calls the reentrant C standard library function :c:func:ptsname_r if
it is available; otherwise, the C standard library function
:c:func:ptsname, which is not guaranteed to be thread-safe, is called.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: pwrite(fd, str, offset, /)
Write the bytestring in str to file descriptor fd at position of offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.
Return the number of bytes actually written.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: pwritev(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)
Write the buffers contents to file descriptor fd at an offset offset,
leaving the file offset unchanged. buffers must be a sequence of
:term:bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>. Buffers are processed in
array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written before
proceeding to the second, and so on.
The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the following flags:
RWF_DSYNCRWF_SYNCRWF_APPENDRWF_DONTCACHERWF_ATOMICReturn the total number of bytes actually written.
The operating system may set a limit (:func:sysconf value
'SC_IOV_MAX') on the number of buffers that can be used.
Combine the functionality of :func:os.writev and :func:os.pwrite.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.
Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. data:: RWF_DSYNC
Provide a per-write equivalent of the :data:O_DSYNC :func:os.open flag.
This flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.7.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. data:: RWF_SYNC
Provide a per-write equivalent of the :data:O_SYNC :func:os.open flag.
This flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.7.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. data:: RWF_APPEND
Provide a per-write equivalent of the :data:O_APPEND :func:os.open
flag. This flag is meaningful only for :func:os.pwritev, and its
effect applies only to the data range written by the system call. The
offset argument does not affect the write operation; the data is always
appended to the end of the file. However, if the offset argument is
-1, the current file offset is updated.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.16.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. function:: read(fd, n, /)
Read at most n bytes from file descriptor fd.
Return a bytestring containing the bytes read. If the end of the file referred to by fd has been reached, an empty bytes object is returned.
.. note::
This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To read a
"file object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by
:func:`popen` or :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdin`, use its
:meth:`~io.TextIOBase.read` or :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` methods.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
:exc:InterruptedError exception (see :pep:475 for the rationale).
.. function:: readinto(fd, buffer, /)
Read from a file descriptor fd into a mutable
:ref:buffer object <bufferobjects> buffer.
The buffer should be mutable and :term:bytes-like <bytes-like object>. On
success, returns the number of bytes read. Less bytes may be read than the
size of the buffer. The underlying system call will be retried when
interrupted by a signal, unless the signal handler raises an exception.
Other errors will not be retried and an error will be raised.
Returns 0 if fd is at end of file or if the provided buffer has length 0 (which can be used to check for errors without reading data). Never returns negative.
.. note::
This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`os.pipe`. To read a
"file object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open`, or
:data:`sys.stdin`, use its member functions, for example
:meth:`io.BufferedIOBase.readinto`, :meth:`io.BufferedIOBase.read`, or
:meth:`io.TextIOBase.read`
.. versionadded:: 3.14
.. function:: sendfile(out_fd, in_fd, offset, count) sendfile(out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(), trailers=(), flags=0)
Copy count bytes from file descriptor in_fd to file descriptor out_fd
starting at offset.
Return the number of bytes sent. When EOF is reached return 0.
The first function notation is supported by all platforms that define
:func:sendfile.
On Linux, if offset is given as None, the bytes are read from the
current position of in_fd and the position of in_fd is updated.
The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where headers and trailers are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written before and after the data from in_fd is written. It returns the same as the first case.
On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of 0 for count specifies to send until
the end of in_fd is reached.
All platforms support sockets as out_fd file descriptor, and some platforms allow other types (e.g. regular file, pipe) as well.
Cross-platform applications should not use headers, trailers and flags arguments.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. note::
For a higher-level wrapper of :func:`sendfile`, see
:meth:`socket.socket.sendfile`.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.9 Parameters out and in was renamed to out_fd and in_fd.
.. data:: SF_NODISKIO SF_MNOWAIT SF_SYNC
Parameters to the :func:sendfile function, if the implementation supports
them.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: SF_NOCACHE
Parameter to the :func:sendfile function, if the implementation supports
it. The data won't be cached in the virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. function:: set_blocking(fd, blocking, /)
Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor. Set the
:data:O_NONBLOCK flag if blocking is False, clear the flag otherwise.
See also :func:get_blocking and :meth:socket.socket.setblocking.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. versionchanged:: 3.12 Added support for pipes on Windows.
.. function:: splice(src, dst, count, offset_src=None, offset_dst=None, flags=0)
Transfer count bytes from file descriptor src, starting from offset offset_src, to file descriptor dst, starting from offset offset_dst.
The splicing behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value.
Any of the following variables may used, combined using bitwise OR
(the | operator):
If :const:SPLICE_F_MOVE is specified,
the kernel is asked to move pages instead of copying,
but pages may still be copied if the kernel cannot move the pages from the pipe.
If :const:SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK is specified,
the kernel is asked to not block on I/O.
This makes the splice pipe operations nonblocking,
but splice may nevertheless block because the spliced file descriptors may block.
If :const:SPLICE_F_MORE is specified,
it hints to the kernel that more data will be coming in a subsequent splice.
At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe. If offset_src
is None, then src is read from the current position; respectively for
offset_dst. The offset associated to the file descriptor that refers to a
pipe must be None. The files pointed to by src and dst must reside in
the same filesystem, otherwise an :exc:OSError is raised with
:attr:~OSError.errno set to :const:errno.EXDEV.
This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel. Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations. The copy is done as if both files are opened as binary.
Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to or from the pipe. A return value of 0 means end of input. If src refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no writers connected to the write end of the pipe.
.. seealso:: The :manpage:splice(2) man page.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. data:: SPLICE_F_MOVE SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK SPLICE_F_MORE
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. function:: readv(fd, buffers, /)
Read from a file descriptor fd into a number of mutable :term:bytes-like objects <bytes-like object> buffers. Transfer data into each buffer until
it is full and then move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the
rest of the data.
Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less than the total capacity of all the objects.
The operating system may set a limit (:func:sysconf value
'SC_IOV_MAX') on the number of buffers that can be used.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: tcgetpgrp(fd, /)
Return the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open
file descriptor as returned by :func:os.open).
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: tcsetpgrp(fd, pg, /)
Set the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file
descriptor as returned by :func:os.open) to pg.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: ttyname(fd, /)
Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with file descriptor fd. If fd is not associated with a terminal device, an exception is raised.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: unlockpt(fd, /)
Unlock the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor fd refers. The file descriptor fd is not closed upon failure.
Calls the C standard library function :c:func:unlockpt.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: write(fd, str, /)
Write the bytestring in str to file descriptor fd.
Return the number of bytes actually written.
.. note::
This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file
descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To write a "file
object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or
:func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`, use its
:meth:`~io.TextIOBase.write` method.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
:exc:InterruptedError exception (see :pep:475 for the rationale).
.. function:: writev(fd, buffers, /)
Write the contents of buffers to file descriptor fd. buffers must be
a sequence of :term:bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>. Buffers are
processed in array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written
before proceeding to the second, and so on.
Returns the total number of bytes actually written.
The operating system may set a limit (:func:sysconf value
'SC_IOV_MAX') on the number of buffers that can be used.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. _terminal-size:
Querying the size of a terminal
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: get_terminal_size(fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)
Return the size of the terminal window as ``(columns, lines)``,
tuple of type :class:`terminal_size`.
The optional argument ``fd`` (default ``STDOUT_FILENO``, or standard
output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried.
If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an :exc:`OSError`
is raised.
:func:`shutil.get_terminal_size` is the high-level function which
should normally be used, ``os.get_terminal_size`` is the low-level
implementation.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. class:: terminal_size
A subclass of tuple, holding ``(columns, lines)`` of the terminal window size.
.. attribute:: columns
Width of the terminal window in characters.
.. attribute:: lines
Height of the terminal window in characters.
.. _fd_inheritance:
Inheritance of File Descriptors
.. versionadded:: 3.4
A file descriptor has an "inheritable" flag which indicates if the file descriptor can be inherited by child processes. Since Python 3.4, file descriptors created by Python are non-inheritable by default.
On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes at the
execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited. Note that
non-inheritable file descriptors are still inherited by child processes on :func:os.fork.
On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in child
processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and 2: stdin, stdout
and stderr), which are always inherited. Using :func:spawn\* <spawnl> functions,
all inheritable handles and all inheritable file descriptors are inherited.
Using the :mod:subprocess module, all file descriptors except standard
streams are closed, and inheritable handles are only inherited if the
close_fds parameter is False.
On WebAssembly platforms, the file descriptor cannot be modified.
.. function:: get_inheritable(fd, /)
Get the "inheritable" flag of the specified file descriptor (a boolean).
.. function:: set_inheritable(fd, inheritable, /)
Set the "inheritable" flag of the specified file descriptor.
.. function:: get_handle_inheritable(handle, /)
Get the "inheritable" flag of the specified handle (a boolean).
.. availability:: Windows.
.. function:: set_handle_inheritable(handle, inheritable, /)
Set the "inheritable" flag of the specified handle.
.. availability:: Windows.
.. _os-file-dir:
On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of these features:
.. _path_fd:
specifying a file descriptor:
Normally the path argument provided to functions in the :mod:!os module
must be a string specifying a file path. However, some functions now
alternatively accept an open file descriptor for their path argument.
The function will then operate on the file referred to by the descriptor.
For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the function prefixed
with f (e.g. call fchdir instead of chdir).
You can check whether or not path can be specified as a file descriptor
for a particular function on your platform using :data:os.supports_fd.
If this functionality is unavailable, using it will raise a
:exc:NotImplementedError.
If the function also supports dir_fd or follow_symlinks arguments, it's an error to specify one of those when supplying path as a file descriptor.
.. _dir_fd:
paths relative to directory descriptors: If dir_fd is not None, it
should be a file descriptor referring to a directory, and the path to operate
on should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. If the
path is absolute, dir_fd is ignored. For POSIX systems, Python will call
the variant of the function with an at suffix and possibly prefixed with
f (e.g. call faccessat instead of access).
You can check whether or not dir_fd is supported for a particular function
on your platform using :data:os.supports_dir_fd. If it's unavailable,
using it will raise a :exc:NotImplementedError.
.. _follow_symlinks:
not following symlinks: If follow_symlinks is
False, and the last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link,
the function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the file
pointed to by the link. For POSIX systems, Python will call the l...
variant of the function.
You can check whether or not follow_symlinks is supported for a particular
function on your platform using :data:os.supports_follow_symlinks.
If it's unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:NotImplementedError.
.. function:: access(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True)
Use the real uid/gid to test for access to path. Note that most operations
will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a
suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user has the specified access to
path. mode should be :const:F_OK to test the existence of path, or it
can be the inclusive OR of one or more of :const:R_OK, :const:W_OK, and
:const:X_OK to test permissions. Return :const:True if access is allowed,
:const:False if not. See the Unix man page :manpage:access(2) for more
information.
This function can support specifying :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd> and :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
If effective_ids is True, :func:access will perform its access
checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real uid/gid.
effective_ids may not be supported on your platform; you can check whether
or not it is available using :data:os.supports_effective_ids. If it is
unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:NotImplementedError.
.. note::
Using :func:`access` to check if a user is authorized to e.g. open a file
before actually doing so using :func:`open` creates a security hole,
because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking
and opening the file to manipulate it. It's preferable to use :term:`EAFP`
techniques. For example::
if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
with open("myfile") as fp:
return fp.read()
return "some default data"
is better written as::
try:
fp = open("myfile")
except PermissionError:
return "some default data"
else:
with fp:
return fp.read()
.. note::
I/O operations may fail even when :func:`access` indicates that they would
succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have
permissions semantics beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd, effective_ids, and follow_symlinks parameters.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. data:: F_OK R_OK W_OK X_OK
Values to pass as the mode parameter of :func:access to test the
existence, readability, writability and executability of path,
respectively.
.. function:: chdir(path)
.. index:: single: directory; changing
Change the current working directory to path.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>. The
descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file.
This function can raise :exc:OSError and subclasses such as
:exc:FileNotFoundError, :exc:PermissionError, and :exc:NotADirectoryError.
.. audit-event:: os.chdir path os.chdir
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added support for specifying path as a file descriptor on some platforms.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: chflags(path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags. flags may take a combination
(bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the :mod:stat module):
stat.UF_NODUMPstat.UF_IMMUTABLEstat.UF_APPENDstat.UF_OPAQUEstat.UF_NOUNLINKstat.UF_COMPRESSEDstat.UF_HIDDENstat.SF_ARCHIVEDstat.SF_IMMUTABLEstat.SF_APPENDstat.SF_NOUNLINKstat.SF_SNAPSHOTThis function can support :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. audit-event:: os.chflags path,flags os.chflags
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the follow_symlinks parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: chmod(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode. mode may take one of the
following values (as defined in the :mod:stat module) or bitwise ORed
combinations of them:
stat.S_ISUIDstat.S_ISGIDstat.S_ENFMTstat.S_ISVTXstat.S_IREADstat.S_IWRITEstat.S_IEXECstat.S_IRWXUstat.S_IRUSRstat.S_IWUSRstat.S_IXUSRstat.S_IRWXGstat.S_IRGRPstat.S_IWGRPstat.S_IXGRPstat.S_IRWXOstat.S_IROTHstat.S_IWOTHstat.S_IXOTHThis function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>,
:ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd> and :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. note::
Although Windows supports :func:`chmod`, you can only set the file's
read-only flag with it (via the ``stat.S_IWRITE`` and ``stat.S_IREAD``
constants or a corresponding integer value). All other bits are ignored.
The default value of *follow_symlinks* is ``False`` on Windows.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. audit-event:: os.chmod path,mode,dir_fd os.chmod
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor, and the dir_fd and follow_symlinks arguments.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13 Added support for a file descriptor and the follow_symlinks argument on Windows.
.. function:: chown(path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>,
:ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd> and :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
See :func:shutil.chown for a higher-level function that accepts names in
addition to numeric ids.
.. audit-event:: os.chown path,uid,gid,dir_fd os.chown
.. availability:: Unix.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor, and the dir_fd and follow_symlinks arguments.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Supports a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: chroot(path)
Change the root directory of the current process to path.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: fchdir(fd)
Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file
descriptor fd. The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an
open file. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to os.chdir(fd).
.. audit-event:: os.chdir path os.fchdir
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: getcwd()
Return a string representing the current working directory.
.. function:: getcwdb()
Return a bytestring representing the current working directory.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI
code page: see :pep:529 for the rationale. The function is no longer
deprecated on Windows.
.. function:: lchflags(path, flags)
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags, like :func:chflags, but do
not follow symbolic links. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
os.chflags(path, flags, follow_symlinks=False).
.. audit-event:: os.chflags path,flags os.lchflags
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: lchmod(path, mode)
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode. If path is a symlink, this
affects the symlink rather than the target. See the docs for :func:chmod
for possible values of mode. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to
os.chmod(path, mode, follow_symlinks=False).
lchmod() is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have it if
changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.
.. audit-event:: os.chmod path,mode,dir_fd os.lchmod
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not Linux, FreeBSD >= 1.3, NetBSD >= 1.3, not OpenBSD
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13 Added support on Windows.
.. function:: lchown(path, uid, gid)
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. This
function will not follow symbolic links. As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent
to os.chown(path, uid, gid, follow_symlinks=False).
.. audit-event:: os.chown path,uid,gid,dir_fd os.lchown
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: link(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
Create a hard link pointing to src named dst.
This function can support specifying src_dir_fd and/or dst_dir_fd to
supply :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>, and :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
The default value of follow_symlinks is False on Windows.
.. audit-event:: os.link src,dst,src_dir_fd,dst_dir_fd os.link
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added Windows support.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the src_dir_fd, dst_dir_fd, and follow_symlinks parameters.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for src and dst.
.. function:: listdir(path='.')
Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by
path. The list is in arbitrary order, and does not include the special
entries '.' and '..' even if they are present in the directory.
If a file is removed from or added to the directory during the call of
this function, whether a name for that file be included is unspecified.
path may be a :term:path-like object. If path is of type bytes
(directly or indirectly through the :class:PathLike interface),
the filenames returned will also be of type bytes;
in all other circumstances, they will be of type str.
This function can also support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.
.. audit-event:: os.listdir path os.listdir
.. note::
To encode str filenames to bytes, use :func:~os.fsencode.
.. seealso::
The :func:`scandir` function returns directory entries along with
file attribute information, giving better performance for many
common use cases.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 The path parameter became optional.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.15
os.listdir(-1) now fails with OSError(errno.EBADF) rather than
listing the current directory.
.. function:: listdrives()
Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.
A drive name typically looks like 'C:\\'. Not every drive name
will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for
a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity
or missing media. This function does not test for access.
May raise :exc:OSError if an error occurs collecting the drive
names.
.. audit-event:: os.listdrives "" os.listdrives
.. availability:: Windows
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. function:: listmounts(volume)
Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows system.
volume must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by
:func:os.listvolumes. Volumes may be mounted in multiple locations
or not at all. In the latter case, the list will be empty. Mount
points that are not associated with a volume will not be returned by
this function.
The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths, and may be longer than the drive name.
Raises :exc:OSError if the volume is not recognized or if an error
occurs collecting the paths.
.. audit-event:: os.listmounts volume os.listmounts
.. availability:: Windows
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. function:: listvolumes()
Return a list containing the volumes in the system.
Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like
\\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\. Files can
usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing.
However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the
recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points
using :func:os.listmounts.
May raise :exc:OSError if an error occurs collecting the volumes.
.. audit-event:: os.listvolumes "" os.listvolumes
.. availability:: Windows
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. function:: lstat(path, *, dir_fd=None)
Perform the equivalent of an :c:func:!lstat system call on the given path.
Similar to :func:~os.stat, but does not follow symbolic links. Return a
:class:stat_result object.
On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias for
:func:~os.stat.
As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to os.stat(path, dir_fd=dir_fd, follow_symlinks=False).
This function can also support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
.. seealso::
The :func:`.stat` function.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
On Windows, now opens reparse points that represent another path
(name surrogates), including symbolic links and directory junctions.
Other kinds of reparse points are resolved by the operating system as
for :func:~os.stat.
.. function:: mkdir(path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)
Create a directory named path with numeric mode mode.
If the directory already exists, :exc:FileExistsError is raised. If a parent
directory in the path does not exist, :exc:FileNotFoundError is raised.
.. _mkdir_modebits:
On some systems, mode is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask
value is first masked out. If bits other than the last 9 (i.e. the last 3
digits of the octal representation of the mode) are set, their meaning is
platform-dependent. On some platforms, they are ignored and you should call
:func:chmod explicitly to set them.
On Windows, a mode of 0o700 is specifically handled to apply access
control to the new directory such that only the current user and
administrators have access. Other values of mode are ignored.
This function can also support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the
:mod:tempfile module's :func:tempfile.mkdtemp function.
.. audit-event:: os.mkdir path,mode,dir_fd os.mkdir
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Windows now handles a mode of 0o700.
.. function:: makedirs(name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)
.. index:: single: directory; creating single: UNC paths; and os.makedirs()
Recursive directory creation function. Like :func:mkdir, but makes all
intermediate-level directories needed to contain the leaf directory.
The mode parameter is passed to :func:mkdir for creating the leaf
directory; see :ref:the mkdir() description <mkdir_modebits> for how it
is interpreted. To set the file permission bits of any newly created parent
directories you can set the umask before invoking :func:makedirs. The
file permission bits of existing parent directories are not changed.
If exist_ok is False (the default), a :exc:FileExistsError is
raised if the target directory already exists.
.. note::
:func:`makedirs` will become confused if the path elements to create
include :data:`pardir` (eg. ".." on UNIX systems).
This function handles UNC paths correctly.
.. audit-event:: os.mkdir path,mode,dir_fd os.makedirs
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added the exist_ok parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4.1
Before Python 3.4.1, if *exist_ok* was ``True`` and the directory existed,
:func:`makedirs` would still raise an error if *mode* did not match the
mode of the existing directory. Since this behavior was impossible to
implement safely, it was removed in Python 3.4.1. See :issue:`21082`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7 The mode argument no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.
.. function:: mkfifo(path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)
Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named path with numeric mode mode. The current umask value is first masked out from the mode.
This function can also support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files. FIFOs exist until they
are deleted (for example with :func:os.unlink). Generally, FIFOs are used as
rendezvous between "client" and "server" type processes: the server opens the
FIFO for reading, and the client opens it for writing. Note that :func:mkfifo
doesn't open the FIFO --- it just creates the rendezvous point.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: mknod(path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)
Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
path. mode specifies both the permissions to use and the type of node
to be created, being combined (bitwise OR) with one of :const:stat.S_IFREG,
:const:stat.S_IFCHR, :const:stat.S_IFBLK, and :const:stat.S_IFIFO.
For :const:stat.S_IFCHR and :const:stat.S_IFBLK, device defines the
newly created device special file (probably using
:func:os.makedev), otherwise it is ignored.
This function can also support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: major(device, /)
Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually the
:attr:~stat_result.st_dev or :attr:~stat_result.st_rdev field from :c:struct:stat).
.. function:: minor(device, /)
Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually the
:attr:~stat_result.st_dev or :attr:~stat_result.st_rdev field from :c:struct:stat).
.. function:: makedev(major, minor, /)
Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers.
.. data:: NODEV
Non-existent device.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. function:: pathconf(path, name)
Return system configuration information relevant to a named file. name
specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the
name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a number of
standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others). Some platforms define
additional names as well. The names known to the host operating system are
given in the pathconf_names dictionary. For configuration variables not
included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted.
If name is a string and is not known, :exc:ValueError is raised. If a
specific value for name is not supported by the host system, even if it is
included in pathconf_names, an :exc:OSError is raised with
:const:errno.EINVAL for the error number.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. data:: pathconf_names
Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:pathconf and :func:fpathconf to
the integer values defined for those names by the host operating system. This
can be used to determine the set of names known to the system.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: readlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)
Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points. The
result may be either an absolute or relative pathname; if it is relative, it
may be converted to an absolute pathname using
os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result).
If the path is a string object (directly or indirectly through a
:class:PathLike interface), the result will also be a string object,
and the call may raise a UnicodeDecodeError. If the path is a bytes
object (direct or indirectly), the result will be a bytes object.
This function can also support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
When trying to resolve a path that may contain links, use
:func:~os.path.realpath to properly handle recursion and platform
differences.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object on Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Accepts a :term:path-like object and a bytes object on Windows.
Added support for directory junctions, and changed to return the
substitution path (which typically includes ``\\?\`` prefix) rather
than the optional "print name" field that was previously returned.
.. function:: remove(path, *, dir_fd=None)
Remove (delete) the file path. If path is a directory, an
:exc:OSError is raised. Use :func:rmdir to remove directories.
If the file does not exist, a :exc:FileNotFoundError is raised.
This function can support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an exception to be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but the storage allocated to the file is not made available until the original file is no longer in use.
This function is semantically identical to :func:unlink.
.. audit-event:: os.remove path,dir_fd os.remove
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: removedirs(name)
.. index:: single: directory; deleting
Remove directories recursively. Works like :func:rmdir except that, if the
leaf directory is successfully removed, :func:removedirs tries to
successively remove every parent directory mentioned in path until an error
is raised (which is ignored, because it generally means that a parent directory
is not empty). For example, os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz') will first remove
the directory 'foo/bar/baz', and then remove 'foo/bar' and 'foo' if
they are empty. Raises :exc:OSError if the leaf directory could not be
successfully removed.
.. audit-event:: os.remove path,dir_fd os.removedirs
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: rename(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)
Rename the file or directory src to dst. If dst exists, the operation
will fail with an :exc:OSError subclass in a number of cases:
On Windows, if dst exists a :exc:FileExistsError is always raised.
The operation may fail if src and dst are on different filesystems. Use
:func:shutil.move to support moves to a different filesystem.
On Unix, if src is a file and dst is a directory or vice-versa, an
:exc:IsADirectoryError or a :exc:NotADirectoryError will be raised
respectively. If both are directories and dst is empty, dst will be
silently replaced. If dst is a non-empty directory, an :exc:OSError
is raised. If both are files, dst will be replaced silently if the user
has permission. The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if src and
dst are on different filesystems. If successful, the renaming will be an
atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).
This function can support specifying src_dir_fd and/or dst_dir_fd to
supply :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use :func:replace.
.. audit-event:: os.rename src,dst,src_dir_fd,dst_dir_fd os.rename
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the src_dir_fd and dst_dir_fd parameters.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for src and dst.
.. function:: renames(old, new)
Recursive directory or file renaming function. Works like :func:rename, except
creation of any intermediate directories needed to make the new pathname good is
attempted first. After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path
segments of the old name will be pruned away using :func:removedirs.
.. note::
This function can fail with the new directory structure made if you lack
permissions needed to remove the leaf directory or file.
.. audit-event:: os.rename src,dst,src_dir_fd,dst_dir_fd os.renames
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for old and new.
.. function:: replace(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)
Rename the file or directory src to dst. If dst is a non-empty directory,
:exc:OSError will be raised. If dst exists and is a file, it will
be replaced silently if the user has permission. The operation may fail
if src and dst are on different filesystems. If successful,
the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).
This function can support specifying src_dir_fd and/or dst_dir_fd to
supply :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
.. audit-event:: os.rename src,dst,src_dir_fd,dst_dir_fd os.replace
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for src and dst.
.. function:: rmdir(path, *, dir_fd=None)
Remove (delete) the directory path. If the directory does not exist or is
not empty, a :exc:FileNotFoundError or an :exc:OSError is raised
respectively. In order to remove whole directory trees,
:func:shutil.rmtree can be used.
This function can support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
.. audit-event:: os.rmdir path,dir_fd os.rmdir
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: scandir(path='.')
Return an iterator of :class:os.DirEntry objects corresponding to the
entries in the directory given by path. The entries are yielded in
arbitrary order, and the special entries '.' and '..' are not
included. If a file is removed from or added to the directory after
creating the iterator, whether an entry for that file be included is
unspecified.
Using :func:scandir instead of :func:listdir can significantly
increase the performance of code that also needs file type or file
attribute information, because :class:os.DirEntry objects expose this
information if the operating system provides it when scanning a directory.
All :class:os.DirEntry methods may perform a system call, but
:func:~os.DirEntry.is_dir and :func:~os.DirEntry.is_file usually only
require a system call for symbolic links; :func:os.DirEntry.stat
always requires a system call on Unix but only requires one for
symbolic links on Windows.
path may be a :term:path-like object. If path is of type bytes
(directly or indirectly through the :class:PathLike interface),
the type of the :attr:~os.DirEntry.name and :attr:~os.DirEntry.path
attributes of each :class:os.DirEntry will be bytes; in all other
circumstances, they will be of type str.
This function can also support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.
.. audit-event:: os.scandir path os.scandir
The :func:scandir iterator supports the :term:context manager protocol
and has the following method:
.. method:: scandir.close()
Close the iterator and free acquired resources.
This is called automatically when the iterator is exhausted or garbage
collected, or when an error happens during iterating. However it
is advisable to call it explicitly or use the :keyword:`with`
statement.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
The following example shows a simple use of :func:scandir to display all
the files (excluding directories) in the given path that don't start with
'.'. The entry.is_file() call will generally not make an additional
system call::
with os.scandir(path) as it:
for entry in it:
if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
print(entry.name)
.. note::
On Unix-based systems, :func:`scandir` uses the system's
`opendir() <https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html>`_
and
`readdir() <https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html>`_
functions. On Windows, it uses the Win32
`FindFirstFileW <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
and
`FindNextFileW <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
functions.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Added support for the :term:context manager protocol and the
:func:~scandir.close method. If a :func:scandir iterator is neither
exhausted nor explicitly closed a :exc:ResourceWarning will be emitted
in its destructor.
The function accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added support for :ref:file descriptors <path_fd> on Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.15
os.scandir(-1) now fails with OSError(errno.EBADF) rather than
listing the current directory.
.. class:: DirEntry
Object yielded by :func:scandir to expose the file path and other file
attributes of a directory entry.
:func:scandir will provide as much of this information as possible without
making additional system calls. When a stat() or lstat() system call
is made, the os.DirEntry object will cache the result.
os.DirEntry instances are not intended to be stored in long-lived data
structures; if you know the file metadata has changed or if a long time has
elapsed since calling :func:scandir, call os.stat(entry.path) to fetch
up-to-date information.
Because the os.DirEntry methods can make operating system calls, they may
also raise :exc:OSError. If you need very fine-grained
control over errors, you can catch :exc:OSError when calling one of the
os.DirEntry methods and handle as appropriate.
To be directly usable as a :term:path-like object, os.DirEntry
implements the :class:PathLike interface.
Attributes and methods on a os.DirEntry instance are as follows:
.. attribute:: name
The entry's base filename, relative to the :func:`scandir` *path*
argument.
The :attr:`name` attribute will be ``bytes`` if the :func:`scandir`
*path* argument is of type ``bytes`` and ``str`` otherwise. Use
:func:`~os.fsdecode` to decode byte filenames.
.. attribute:: path
The entry's full path name: equivalent to ``os.path.join(scandir_path,
entry.name)`` where *scandir_path* is the :func:`scandir` *path*
argument. The path is only absolute if the :func:`scandir` *path*
argument was absolute. If the :func:`scandir` *path*
argument was a :ref:`file descriptor <path_fd>`, the :attr:`path`
attribute is the same as the :attr:`name` attribute.
The :attr:`path` attribute will be ``bytes`` if the :func:`scandir`
*path* argument is of type ``bytes`` and ``str`` otherwise. Use
:func:`~os.fsdecode` to decode byte filenames.
.. method:: inode()
Return the inode number of the entry.
The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Use
``os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino`` to fetch up-to-date
information.
On the first, uncached call, a system call is required on Windows but
not on Unix.
.. method:: is_dir(*, follow_symlinks=True)
Return ``True`` if this entry is a directory or a symbolic link pointing
to a directory; return ``False`` if the entry is or points to any other
kind of file, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
If *follow_symlinks* is ``False``, return ``True`` only if this entry
is a directory (without following symlinks); return ``False`` if the
entry is any other kind of file or if it doesn't exist anymore.
The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object, with a separate cache
for *follow_symlinks* ``True`` and ``False``. Call :func:`os.stat` along
with :func:`stat.S_ISDIR` to fetch up-to-date information.
On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in most cases.
Specifically, for non-symlinks, neither Windows or Unix require a system
call, except on certain Unix file systems, such as network file systems,
that return ``dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN``. If the entry is a symlink,
a system call will be required to follow the symlink unless
*follow_symlinks* is ``False``.
This method can raise :exc:`OSError`, such as :exc:`PermissionError`,
but :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is caught and not raised.
.. method:: is_file(*, follow_symlinks=True)
Return ``True`` if this entry is a file or a symbolic link pointing to a
file; return ``False`` if the entry is or points to a directory or other
non-file entry, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
If *follow_symlinks* is ``False``, return ``True`` only if this entry
is a file (without following symlinks); return ``False`` if the entry is
a directory or other non-file entry, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Caching, system calls
made, and exceptions raised are as per :func:`~os.DirEntry.is_dir`.
.. method:: is_symlink()
Return ``True`` if this entry is a symbolic link (even if broken);
return ``False`` if the entry points to a directory or any kind of file,
or if it doesn't exist anymore.
The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Call
:func:`os.path.islink` to fetch up-to-date information.
On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in most cases.
Specifically, neither Windows or Unix require a system call, except on
certain Unix file systems, such as network file systems, that return
``dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN``.
This method can raise :exc:`OSError`, such as :exc:`PermissionError`,
but :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is caught and not raised.
.. method:: is_junction()
Return ``True`` if this entry is a junction (even if broken);
return ``False`` if the entry points to a regular directory, any kind
of file, a symlink, or if it doesn't exist anymore.
The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object. Call
:func:`os.path.isjunction` to fetch up-to-date information.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. method:: stat(*, follow_symlinks=True)
Return a :class:`stat_result` object for this entry. This method
follows symbolic links by default; to stat a symbolic link add the
``follow_symlinks=False`` argument.
On Unix, this method always requires a system call. On Windows, it
only requires a system call if *follow_symlinks* is ``True`` and the
entry is a reparse point (for example, a symbolic link or directory
junction).
On Windows, the ``st_ino``, ``st_dev`` and ``st_nlink`` attributes of the
:class:`stat_result` are always set to zero. Call :func:`os.stat` to
get these attributes.
The result is cached on the ``os.DirEntry`` object, with a separate cache
for *follow_symlinks* ``True`` and ``False``. Call :func:`os.stat` to
fetch up-to-date information.
Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
and methods of os.DirEntry and of :class:pathlib.Path. In
particular, the name attribute has the same
meaning, as do the is_dir(), is_file(), is_symlink(),
is_junction(), and stat() methods.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Added support for the :class:~os.PathLike interface. Added support
for :class:bytes paths on Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
The st_ctime attribute of a stat result is deprecated on Windows.
The file creation time is properly available as st_birthtime, and
in the future st_ctime may be changed to return zero or the
metadata change time, if available.
.. function:: stat(path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
Get the status of a file or a file descriptor. Perform the equivalent of a
:c:func:stat system call on the given path. path may be specified as
either a string or bytes -- directly or indirectly through the :class:PathLike
interface -- or as an open file descriptor. Return a :class:stat_result
object.
This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the argument
follow_symlinks=False, or use :func:lstat.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd> and
:ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
On Windows, passing follow_symlinks=False will disable following all
name-surrogate reparse points, which includes symlinks and directory
junctions. Other types of reparse points that do not resemble links or that
the operating system is unable to follow will be opened directly. When
following a chain of multiple links, this may result in the original link
being returned instead of the non-link that prevented full traversal. To
obtain stat results for the final path in this case, use the
:func:os.path.realpath function to resolve the path name as far as
possible and call :func:lstat on the result. This does not apply to
dangling symlinks or junction points, which will raise the usual exceptions.
.. index:: pair: module; stat
Example::
>>> import os
>>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
>>> statinfo
os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
>>> statinfo.st_size
264
.. seealso::
:func:`fstat` and :func:`lstat` functions.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd and follow_symlinks parameters, specifying a file descriptor instead of a path.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
On Windows, all reparse points that can be resolved by the operating
system are now followed, and passing follow_symlinks=False
disables following all name surrogate reparse points. If the operating
system reaches a reparse point that it is not able to follow, stat now
returns the information for the original path as if
follow_symlinks=False had been specified instead of raising an error.
.. class:: stat_result
Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
:c:struct:stat structure. It is used for the result of :func:os.stat,
:func:os.fstat and :func:os.lstat.
Attributes:
.. attribute:: st_mode
File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).
.. attribute:: st_ino
Platform dependent, but if non-zero, uniquely identifies the
file for a given value of ``st_dev``. Typically:
* the inode number on Unix,
* the `file index
<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788>`_ on
Windows
.. attribute:: st_dev
Identifier of the device on which this file resides.
.. attribute:: st_nlink
Number of hard links.
.. attribute:: st_uid
User identifier of the file owner.
.. attribute:: st_gid
Group identifier of the file owner.
.. attribute:: st_size
Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a symbolic link.
The size of a symbolic link is the length of the pathname it contains,
without a terminating null byte.
Timestamps:
.. attribute:: st_atime
Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.
.. attribute:: st_mtime
Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.
.. attribute:: st_ctime
Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
``st_ctime`` is deprecated on Windows. Use ``st_birthtime`` for
the file creation time. In the future, ``st_ctime`` will contain
the time of the most recent metadata change, as for other platforms.
.. attribute:: st_atime_ns
Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. attribute:: st_mtime_ns
Time of most recent content modification expressed in nanoseconds as an
integer.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. attribute:: st_ctime_ns
Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds as an
integer.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
``st_ctime_ns`` is deprecated on Windows. Use ``st_birthtime_ns``
for the file creation time. In the future, ``st_ctime`` will contain
the time of the most recent metadata change, as for other platforms.
.. attribute:: st_birthtime
Time of file creation expressed in seconds. This attribute is not
always available, and may raise :exc:`AttributeError`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
``st_birthtime`` is now available on Windows.
.. attribute:: st_birthtime_ns
Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
This attribute is not always available, and may raise
:exc:`AttributeError`.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
.. note::
The exact meaning and resolution of the :attr:`st_atime`,
:attr:`st_mtime`, :attr:`st_ctime` and :attr:`st_birthtime` attributes
depend on the operating system and the file system. For example, on
Windows systems using the FAT32 file systems, :attr:`st_mtime` has
2-second resolution, and :attr:`st_atime` has only 1-day resolution.
See your operating system documentation for details.
Similarly, although :attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`,
:attr:`st_ctime_ns` and :attr:`st_birthtime_ns` are always expressed in
nanoseconds, many systems do not provide nanosecond precision. On
systems that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point object
used to store :attr:`st_atime`, :attr:`st_mtime`, :attr:`st_ctime` and
:attr:`st_birthtime` cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be
slightly inexact. If you need the exact timestamps you should always use
:attr:`st_atime_ns`, :attr:`st_mtime_ns`, :attr:`st_ctime_ns` and
:attr:`st_birthtime_ns`.
On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may also be available:
.. attribute:: st_blocks
Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.
This may be smaller than :attr:`st_size`/512 when the file has holes.
.. attribute:: st_blksize
"Preferred" blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing to a file in
smaller chunks may cause an inefficient read-modify-rewrite.
.. attribute:: st_rdev
Type of device if an inode device.
.. attribute:: st_flags
User defined flags for file.
On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes may be available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use them):
.. attribute:: st_gen
File generation number.
On Solaris and derivatives, the following attributes may also be available:
.. attribute:: st_fstype
String that uniquely identifies the type of the filesystem that
contains the file.
On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:
.. attribute:: st_rsize
Real size of the file.
.. attribute:: st_creator
Creator of the file.
.. attribute:: st_type
File type.
On Windows systems, the following attributes are also available:
.. attribute:: st_file_attributes
Windows file attributes: ``dwFileAttributes`` member of the
``BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION`` structure returned by
:c:func:`!GetFileInformationByHandle`.
See the :const:`!FILE_ATTRIBUTE_* <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE>`
constants in the :mod:`stat` module.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. attribute:: st_reparse_tag
When :attr:`st_file_attributes` has the :const:`~stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT`
set, this field contains the tag identifying the type of reparse point.
See the :const:`IO_REPARSE_TAG_* <stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK>`
constants in the :mod:`stat` module.
The standard module :mod:stat defines functions and constants that are
useful for extracting information from a :c:struct:stat structure. (On
Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)
For backward compatibility, a :class:stat_result instance is also
accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and
portable) members of the :c:struct:stat structure, in the order
:attr:st_mode, :attr:st_ino, :attr:st_dev, :attr:st_nlink,
:attr:st_uid, :attr:st_gid, :attr:st_size, :attr:st_atime,
:attr:st_mtime, :attr:st_ctime. More items may be added at the end by
some implementations. For compatibility with older Python versions,
accessing :class:stat_result as a tuple always returns integers.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Windows now returns the file index as :attr:st_ino when
available.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added the :attr:st_fstype member to Solaris/derivatives.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Added the :attr:st_reparse_tag member on Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
On Windows, the :attr:st_mode member now identifies special
files as :const:~stat.S_IFCHR, :const:~stat.S_IFIFO or
:const:~stat.S_IFBLK as appropriate.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
On Windows, :attr:st_ctime is deprecated. Eventually, it will
contain the last metadata change time, for consistency with other
platforms, but for now still contains creation time.
Use :attr:st_birthtime for the creation time.
On Windows, :attr:`st_ino` may now be up to 128 bits, depending
on the file system. Previously it would not be above 64 bits, and
larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.
On Windows, :attr:`st_rdev` no longer returns a value. Previously
it would contain the same as :attr:`st_dev`, which was incorrect.
Added the :attr:`st_birthtime` member on Windows.
.. function:: statx(path, mask, *, flags=0, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
Get the status of a file or file descriptor by performing a :c:func:!statx
system call on the given path.
path is a :term:path-like object or an open file descriptor. mask is a
combination of the module-level :const:STATX_* <STATX_TYPE> constants
specifying the information to retrieve. flags is a combination of the
module-level :const:AT_STATX_* <AT_STATX_FORCE_SYNC> constants and/or
:const:AT_NO_AUTOMOUNT. Returns a :class:statx_result object whose
:attr:~os.statx_result.stx_mask attribute specifies the information
actually retrieved (which may differ from mask).
This function supports :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>,
:ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>, and
:ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. seealso:: The :manpage:statx(2) man page.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. class:: statx_result
Information about a file returned by :func:os.statx.
:class:!statx_result has the following attributes:
.. attribute:: stx_atime
Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_ATIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_atime_ns
Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_ATIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_atomic_write_segments_max
Maximum iovecs for direct I/O with torn-write protection.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.11.
.. attribute:: stx_atomic_write_unit_max
Maximum size for direct I/O with torn-write protection.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.11.
.. attribute:: stx_atomic_write_unit_max_opt
Maximum optimized size for direct I/O with torn-write protection.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.16.
.. attribute:: stx_atomic_write_unit_min
Minimum size for direct I/O with torn-write protection.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.11.
.. attribute:: stx_attributes
Bitmask of :const:`STATX_ATTR_* <stat.STATX_ATTR_COMPRESSED>` constants
specifying the attributes of this file.
.. attribute:: stx_attributes_mask
A mask indicating which bits in :attr:`stx_attributes` are supported by
the VFS and the filesystem.
.. attribute:: stx_blksize
"Preferred" blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing to a file in
smaller chunks may cause an inefficient read-modify-rewrite.
.. attribute:: stx_blocks
Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.
This may be smaller than :attr:`stx_size`/512 when the file has holes.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_BLOCKS` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_btime
Time of file creation expressed in seconds.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_BTIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_btime_ns
Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_BTIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_ctime
Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_CTIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_ctime_ns
Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds as an
integer.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_CTIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_dev
Identifier of the device on which this file resides.
.. attribute:: stx_dev_major
Major number of the device on which this file resides.
.. attribute:: stx_dev_minor
Minor number of the device on which this file resides.
.. attribute:: stx_dio_mem_align
Direct I/O memory buffer alignment requirement.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_DIOALIGN` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.1.
.. attribute:: stx_dio_offset_align
Direct I/O file offset alignment requirement.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_DIOALIGN` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.1.
.. attribute:: stx_dio_read_offset_align
Direct I/O file offset alignment requirement for reads.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_DIO_READ_ALIGN` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.14.
.. attribute:: stx_gid
Group identifier of the file owner.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_GID` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_ino
Inode number.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_INO` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_mask
Bitmask of :const:`STATX_* <STATX_TYPE>` constants specifying the
information retrieved, which may differ from what was requested.
.. attribute:: stx_mnt_id
Mount identifier.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_MNT_ID` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 5.8.
.. attribute:: stx_mode
File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_TYPE | STATX_MODE <STATX_TYPE>`
is missing from :attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_mtime
Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_MTIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_mtime_ns
Time of most recent content modification expressed in nanoseconds as an
integer.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_MTIME` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_nlink
Number of hard links.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_NLINK` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_rdev
Type of device if an inode device.
.. attribute:: stx_rdev_major
Major number of the device this file represents.
.. attribute:: stx_rdev_minor
Minor number of the device this file represents.
.. attribute:: stx_size
Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a symbolic link.
The size of a symbolic link is the length of the pathname it contains,
without a terminating null byte.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_SIZE` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. attribute:: stx_subvol
Subvolume identifier.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_SUBVOL` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28 and build-time kernel
userspace API headers >= 6.10.
.. attribute:: stx_uid
User identifier of the file owner.
Equal to ``None`` if :data:`STATX_UID` is missing from
:attr:`~statx_result.stx_mask`.
.. seealso:: The :manpage:statx(2) man page.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. data:: STATX_TYPE STATX_MODE STATX_NLINK STATX_UID STATX_GID STATX_ATIME STATX_MTIME STATX_CTIME STATX_INO STATX_SIZE STATX_BLOCKS STATX_BASIC_STATS STATX_BTIME STATX_MNT_ID STATX_DIOALIGN STATX_MNT_ID_UNIQUE STATX_SUBVOL STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC STATX_DIO_READ_ALIGN
Bitflags for use in the mask parameter to :func:os.statx. Some of these
flags may be available even when their corresponding members in
:class:statx_result are not available.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. data:: AT_STATX_FORCE_SYNC
A flag for the :func:os.statx function. Requests that the kernel return
up-to-date information even when doing so is expensive (for example,
requiring a round trip to the server for a file on a network filesystem).
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. data:: AT_STATX_DONT_SYNC
A flag for the :func:os.statx function. Requests that the kernel return
cached information if possible.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. data:: AT_STATX_SYNC_AS_STAT
A flag for the :func:os.statx function. This flag is defined as 0, so
it has no effect, but it can be used to explicitly indicate neither
:data:AT_STATX_FORCE_SYNC nor :data:AT_STATX_DONT_SYNC is being passed.
In the absence of the other two flags, the kernel will generally return
information as fresh as :func:os.stat would return.
.. availability:: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. data:: AT_NO_AUTOMOUNT
If the final component of a path is an automount point, operate on the
automount point instead of performing the automount. On Linux,
:func:os.stat, :func:os.fstat and :func:os.lstat always behave this
way.
.. availability:: Linux.
.. versionadded:: 3.15
.. function:: statvfs(path)
Perform a :c:func:!statvfs system call on the given path. The return value is
an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the given path, and
correspond to the members of the :c:struct:statvfs structure, namely:
:attr:f_bsize, :attr:f_frsize, :attr:f_blocks, :attr:f_bfree,
:attr:f_bavail, :attr:f_files, :attr:f_ffree, :attr:f_favail,
:attr:f_flag, :attr:f_namemax, :attr:f_fsid.
Two module-level constants are defined for the :attr:f_flag attribute's
bit-flags: if :const:ST_RDONLY is set, the filesystem is mounted
read-only, and if :const:ST_NOSUID is set, the semantics of
setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.
Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based systems.
These are :const:ST_NODEV (disallow access to device special files),
:const:ST_NOEXEC (disallow program execution), :const:ST_SYNCHRONOUS
(writes are synced at once), :const:ST_MANDLOCK (allow mandatory locks on an FS),
:const:ST_WRITE (write on file/directory/symlink), :const:ST_APPEND
(append-only file), :const:ST_IMMUTABLE (immutable file), :const:ST_NOATIME
(do not update access times), :const:ST_NODIRATIME (do not update directory access
times), :const:ST_RELATIME (update atime relative to mtime/ctime).
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
The :const:ST_RDONLY and :const:ST_NOSUID constants were added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
The :const:ST_NODEV, :const:ST_NOEXEC, :const:ST_SYNCHRONOUS,
:const:ST_MANDLOCK, :const:ST_WRITE, :const:ST_APPEND,
:const:ST_IMMUTABLE, :const:ST_NOATIME, :const:ST_NODIRATIME,
and :const:ST_RELATIME constants were added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added the :attr:f_fsid attribute.
.. data:: supports_dir_fd
A :class:set object indicating which functions in the :mod:!os
module accept an open file descriptor for their dir_fd parameter.
Different platforms provide different features, and the underlying
functionality Python uses to implement the dir_fd parameter is not
available on all platforms Python supports. For consistency's sake,
functions that may support dir_fd always allow specifying the
parameter, but will throw an exception if the functionality is used
when it's not locally available. (Specifying None for dir_fd
is always supported on all platforms.)
To check whether a particular function accepts an open file descriptor
for its dir_fd parameter, use the in operator on supports_dir_fd.
As an example, this expression evaluates to True if :func:os.stat
accepts open file descriptors for dir_fd on the local platform::
os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd
Currently dir_fd parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of them work on Windows.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: supports_effective_ids
A :class:set object indicating whether :func:os.access permits
specifying True for its effective_ids parameter on the local platform.
(Specifying False for effective_ids is always supported on all
platforms.) If the local platform supports it, the collection will contain
:func:os.access; otherwise it will be empty.
This expression evaluates to True if :func:os.access supports
effective_ids=True on the local platform::
os.access in os.supports_effective_ids
Currently effective_ids is only supported on Unix platforms; it does not work on Windows.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: supports_fd
A :class:set object indicating which functions in the
:mod:!os module permit specifying their path parameter as an open file
descriptor on the local platform. Different platforms provide different
features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to accept open file
descriptors as path arguments is not available on all platforms Python
supports.
To determine whether a particular function permits specifying an open file
descriptor for its path parameter, use the in operator on
supports_fd. As an example, this expression evaluates to True if
:func:os.chdir accepts open file descriptors for path on your local
platform::
os.chdir in os.supports_fd
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: supports_follow_symlinks
A :class:set object indicating which functions in the :mod:!os module
accept False for their follow_symlinks parameter on the local platform.
Different platforms provide different features, and the underlying
functionality Python uses to implement follow_symlinks is not available
on all platforms Python supports. For consistency's sake, functions that
may support follow_symlinks always allow specifying the parameter, but
will throw an exception if the functionality is used when it's not locally
available. (Specifying True for follow_symlinks is always supported
on all platforms.)
To check whether a particular function accepts False for its
follow_symlinks parameter, use the in operator on
supports_follow_symlinks. As an example, this expression evaluates
to True if you may specify follow_symlinks=False when calling
:func:os.stat on the local platform::
os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: symlink(src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *, dir_fd=None)
Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst.
The src parameter refers to the target of the link (the file or directory being linked to), and dst is the name of the link being created.
On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not
morph to the target dynamically. If the target is present, the type of the
symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created
as a directory if target_is_directory is True or a file symlink (the
default) otherwise. On non-Windows platforms, target_is_directory is ignored.
This function can support :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd>.
.. note::
On newer versions of Windows 10, unprivileged accounts can create symlinks
if Developer Mode is enabled. When Developer Mode is not available/enabled,
the *SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege* privilege is required, or the process
must be run as an administrator.
:exc:`OSError` is raised when the function is called by an unprivileged
user.
.. audit-event:: os.symlink src,dst,dir_fd os.symlink
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
The function is limited on WASI, see :ref:`wasm-availability` for more
information.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista) symbolic links.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter, and now allow target_is_directory on non-Windows platforms.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for src and dst.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8 Added support for unelevated symlinks on Windows with Developer Mode.
.. function:: sync()
Force write of everything to disk.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: truncate(path, length)
Truncate the file corresponding to path, so that it is at most length bytes in size.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>.
.. audit-event:: os.truncate path,length os.truncate
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.5 Added support for Windows
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: unlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)
Remove (delete) the file path. This function is semantically
identical to :func:remove; the unlink name is its
traditional Unix name. Please see the documentation for
:func:remove for further information.
.. audit-event:: os.remove path,dir_fd os.unlink
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the dir_fd parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: utime(path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)
Set the access and modified times of the file specified by path.
:func:utime takes two optional parameters, times and ns.
These specify the times set on path and are used as follows:
(atime_ns, mtime_ns)
where each member is an int expressing nanoseconds.None,
it must be a 2-tuple of the form (atime, mtime)
where each member is a real number expressing seconds,
rounded down to nanoseconds.None and ns is unspecified,
this is equivalent to specifying ns=(atime_ns, mtime_ns)
where both times are the current time.It is an error to specify tuples for both times and ns.
Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a subsequent
:func:~os.stat call, depending on the resolution with which your operating
system records access and modification times; see :func:~os.stat. The best
way to preserve exact times is to use the st_atime_ns and st_mtime_ns
fields from the :func:os.stat result object with the ns parameter to
:func:utime.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>,
:ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd> and :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. audit-event:: os.utime path,times,ns,dir_fd os.utime
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor, and the dir_fd, follow_symlinks, and ns parameters.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.15 Accepts any real numbers as times, not only integers or floats.
.. function:: walk(top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)
.. index:: single: directory; walking single: directory; traversal
Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
either top-down or bottom-up. For each directory in the tree rooted at directory
top (including top itself), it yields a 3-tuple (dirpath, dirnames, filenames).
dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the
names of the subdirectories in dirpath (including symlinks to directories,
and excluding '.' and '..').
filenames is a list of the names of the non-directory files in dirpath.
Note that the names in the lists contain no path components. To get a full path
(which begins with top) to a file or directory in dirpath, do
os.path.join(dirpath, name). Whether or not the lists are sorted
depends on the file system. If a file is removed from or added to the
dirpath directory during generating the lists, whether a name for that
file be included is unspecified.
If optional argument topdown is True or not specified, the triple for a
directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories
(directories are generated top-down). If topdown is False, the triple
for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories
(directories are generated bottom-up). No matter the value of topdown, the
list of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory and
its subdirectories are generated.
When topdown is True, the caller can modify the dirnames list in-place
(perhaps using :keyword:del or slice assignment), and :func:walk will only
recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames; this can be
used to prune the search, impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform
:func:walk about directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes
:func:walk again. Modifying dirnames when topdown is False has
no effect on the behavior of the walk, because in bottom-up mode the directories
in dirnames are generated before dirpath itself is generated.
By default, errors from the :func:scandir call are ignored. If optional
argument onerror is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with
one argument, an :exc:OSError instance. It can report the error to continue
with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk. Note that the filename
is available as the filename attribute of the exception object.
By default, :func:walk will not walk down into symbolic links that resolve to
directories. Set followlinks to True to visit directories pointed to by
symlinks, on systems that support them.
.. note::
Be aware that setting *followlinks* to ``True`` can lead to infinite
recursion if a link points to a parent directory of itself. :func:`walk`
does not keep track of the directories it visited already.
.. note::
If you pass a relative pathname, don't change the current working directory
between resumptions of :func:`walk`. :func:`walk` never changes the current
directory, and assumes that its caller doesn't either.
This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any
__pycache__ subdirectory::
import os
from os.path import join, getsize
for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
if '__pycache__' in dirs:
dirs.remove('__pycache__') # don't visit __pycache__ directories
In the next example (simple implementation of :func:shutil.rmtree),
walking the tree bottom-up is essential, :func:rmdir doesn't allow
deleting a directory before the directory is empty::
# Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
# assuming there are no symbolic links.
# CAUTION: This is dangerous! For example, if top == '/', it
# could delete all your disk files.
import os
for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
for name in files:
os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
for name in dirs:
os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
os.rmdir(top)
.. audit-event:: os.walk top,topdown,onerror,followlinks os.walk
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
This function now calls :func:os.scandir instead of :func:os.listdir,
making it faster by reducing the number of calls to :func:os.stat.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: fwalk(top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *, follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)
.. index:: single: directory; walking single: directory; traversal
This behaves exactly like :func:walk, except that it yields a 4-tuple
(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd), and it supports dir_fd.
dirpath, dirnames and filenames are identical to :func:walk output,
and dirfd is a file descriptor referring to the directory dirpath.
This function always supports :ref:paths relative to directory descriptors <dir_fd> and :ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>. Note however
that, unlike other functions, the :func:fwalk default value for
follow_symlinks is False.
.. note::
Since :func:`fwalk` yields file descriptors, those are only valid until
the next iteration step, so you should duplicate them (e.g. with
:func:`dup`) if you want to keep them longer.
This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any
__pycache__ subdirectory::
import os
for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
end=" ")
print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
if '__pycache__' in dirs:
dirs.remove('__pycache__') # don't visit __pycache__ directories
In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential:
:func:rmdir doesn't allow deleting a directory before the directory is
empty::
# Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
# assuming there are no symbolic links.
# CAUTION: This is dangerous! For example, if top == '/', it
# could delete all your disk files.
import os
for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
for name in files:
os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
for name in dirs:
os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
.. audit-event:: os.fwalk top,topdown,onerror,follow_symlinks,dir_fd os.fwalk
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added support for :class:bytes paths.
.. function:: memfd_create(name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])
Create an anonymous file and return a file descriptor that refers to it.
flags must be one of the os.MFD_* constants available on the system
(or a bitwise ORed combination of them). By default, the new file
descriptor is :ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
The name supplied in name is used as a filename and will be displayed as
the target of the corresponding symbolic link in the directory
/proc/self/fd/. The displayed name is always prefixed with memfd:
and serves only for debugging purposes. Names do not affect the behavior of
the file descriptor, and as such multiple files can have the same name
without any side effects.
.. availability:: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. data:: MFD_CLOEXEC MFD_ALLOW_SEALING MFD_HUGETLB MFD_HUGE_SHIFT MFD_HUGE_MASK MFD_HUGE_64KB MFD_HUGE_512KB MFD_HUGE_1MB MFD_HUGE_2MB MFD_HUGE_8MB MFD_HUGE_16MB MFD_HUGE_32MB MFD_HUGE_256MB MFD_HUGE_512MB MFD_HUGE_1GB MFD_HUGE_2GB MFD_HUGE_16GB
These flags can be passed to :func:memfd_create.
.. availability:: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27
The ``MFD_HUGE*`` flags are only available since Linux 4.14.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. function:: eventfd(initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])
Create and return an event file descriptor. The file descriptors supports
raw :func:read and :func:write with a buffer size of 8,
:func:~select.select, :func:~select.poll and similar. See man page
:manpage:eventfd(2) for more information. By default, the
new file descriptor is :ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
initval is the initial value of the event counter. The initial value
must be a 32 bit unsigned integer. Please note that the initial value is
limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the event counter is an unsigned
64 bit integer with a maximum value of 2\ :sup:64\ -\ 2.
flags can be constructed from :const:EFD_CLOEXEC,
:const:EFD_NONBLOCK, and :const:EFD_SEMAPHORE.
If :const:EFD_SEMAPHORE is specified and the event counter is non-zero,
:func:eventfd_read returns 1 and decrements the counter by one.
If :const:EFD_SEMAPHORE is not specified and the event counter is
non-zero, :func:eventfd_read returns the current event counter value and
resets the counter to zero.
If the event counter is zero and :const:EFD_NONBLOCK is not
specified, :func:eventfd_read blocks.
:func:eventfd_write increments the event counter. Write blocks if the
write operation would increment the counter to a value larger than
2\ :sup:64\ -\ 2.
Example::
import os
# semaphore with start value '1'
fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFD_CLOEXEC)
try:
# acquire semaphore
v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
try:
do_work()
finally:
# release semaphore
os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
finally:
os.close(fd)
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. function:: eventfd_read(fd)
Read value from an :func:eventfd file descriptor and return a 64 bit
unsigned int. The function does not verify that fd is an :func:eventfd.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. function:: eventfd_write(fd, value)
Add value to an :func:eventfd file descriptor. value must be a 64 bit
unsigned int. The function does not verify that fd is an :func:eventfd.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. data:: EFD_CLOEXEC
Set close-on-exec flag for new :func:eventfd file descriptor.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. data:: EFD_NONBLOCK
Set :const:O_NONBLOCK status flag for new :func:eventfd file
descriptor.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. data:: EFD_SEMAPHORE
Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an :func:eventfd file
descriptor. On read the internal counter is decremented by one.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.30
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. _os-timerfd:
Timer File Descriptors
.. versionadded:: 3.13
These functions provide support for Linux's *timer file descriptor* API.
Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
.. function:: timerfd_create(clockid, /, *, flags=0)
Create and return a timer file descriptor (*timerfd*).
The file descriptor returned by :func:`timerfd_create` supports:
- :func:`read`
- :func:`~select.select`
- :func:`~select.poll`
The file descriptor's :func:`read` method can be called with a buffer size
of 8. If the timer has already expired one or more times, :func:`read`
returns the number of expirations with the host's endianness, which may be
converted to an :class:`int` by ``int.from_bytes(x, byteorder=sys.byteorder)``.
:func:`~select.select` and :func:`~select.poll` can be used to wait until
timer expires and the file descriptor is readable.
*clockid* must be a valid :ref:`clock ID <time-clock-id-constants>`,
as defined in the :py:mod:`time` module:
- :const:`time.CLOCK_REALTIME`
- :const:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC`
- :const:`time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME` (Since Linux 3.15 for timerfd_create)
If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_REALTIME`, a settable system-wide
real-time clock is used. If system clock is changed, timer setting need
to be updated. To cancel timer when system clock is changed, see
:const:`TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET`.
If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC`, a non-settable monotonically
increasing clock is used. Even if the system clock is changed, the timer
setting will not be affected.
If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME`, same as :const:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC`
except it includes any time that the system is suspended.
The file descriptor's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
Any of the following variables may be used, combined using bitwise OR
(the ``|`` operator):
- :const:`TFD_NONBLOCK`
- :const:`TFD_CLOEXEC`
If :const:`TFD_NONBLOCK` is not set as a flag, :func:`read` blocks until
the timer expires. If it is set as a flag, :func:`read` doesn't block, but
If there hasn't been an expiration since the last call to read,
:func:`read` raises :class:`OSError` with ``errno`` is set to
:const:`errno.EAGAIN`.
:const:`TFD_CLOEXEC` is always set by Python automatically.
The file descriptor must be closed with :func:`os.close` when it is no
longer needed, or else the file descriptor will be leaked.
.. seealso:: The :manpage:`timerfd_create(2)` man page.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: timerfd_settime(fd, /, *, flags=flags, initial=0.0, interval=0.0)
Alter a timer file descriptor's internal timer.
This function operates the same interval timer as :func:`timerfd_settime_ns`.
*fd* must be a valid timer file descriptor.
The timer's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
Any of the following variables may be used, combined using bitwise OR
(the ``|`` operator):
- :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME`
- :const:`TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET`
The timer is disabled by setting *initial* to zero (``0``).
If *initial* is equal to or greater than zero, the timer is enabled.
If *initial* is less than zero, it raises an :class:`OSError` exception
with ``errno`` set to :const:`errno.EINVAL`
By default the timer will fire when *initial* seconds have elapsed.
(If *initial* is zero, timer will fire immediately.)
However, if the :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME` flag is set,
the timer will fire when the timer's clock
(set by *clockid* in :func:`timerfd_create`) reaches *initial* seconds.
The timer's interval is set by the *interval* real number.
If *interval* is zero, the timer only fires once, on the initial expiration.
If *interval* is greater than zero, the timer fires every time *interval*
seconds have elapsed since the previous expiration.
If *interval* is less than zero, it raises :class:`OSError` with ``errno``
set to :const:`errno.EINVAL`
If the :const:`TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET` flag is set along with
:const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME` and the clock for this timer is
:const:`time.CLOCK_REALTIME`, the timer is marked as cancelable if the
real-time clock is changed discontinuously. Reading the descriptor is
aborted with the error ECANCELED.
Linux manages system clock as UTC. A daylight-savings time transition is
done by changing time offset only and doesn't cause discontinuous system
clock change.
Discontinuous system clock change will be caused by the following events:
- ``settimeofday``
- ``clock_settime``
- set the system date and time by ``date`` command
Return a two-item tuple of (``next_expiration``, ``interval``) from
the previous timer state, before this function executed.
.. seealso::
:manpage:`timerfd_create(2)`, :manpage:`timerfd_settime(2)`,
:manpage:`settimeofday(2)`, :manpage:`clock_settime(2)`,
and :manpage:`date(1)`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: timerfd_settime_ns(fd, /, *, flags=0, initial=0, interval=0)
Similar to :func:`timerfd_settime`, but use time as nanoseconds.
This function operates the same interval timer as :func:`timerfd_settime`.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: timerfd_gettime(fd, /)
Return a two-item tuple of floats (``next_expiration``, ``interval``).
``next_expiration`` denotes the relative time until the timer next fires,
regardless of if the :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME` flag is set.
``interval`` denotes the timer's interval.
If zero, the timer will only fire once, after ``next_expiration`` seconds
have elapsed.
.. seealso:: :manpage:`timerfd_gettime(2)`
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: timerfd_gettime_ns(fd, /)
Similar to :func:`timerfd_gettime`, but return time as nanoseconds.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. data:: TFD_NONBLOCK
A flag for the :func:`timerfd_create` function,
which sets the :const:`O_NONBLOCK` status flag for the new timer file
descriptor. If :const:`TFD_NONBLOCK` is not set as a flag, :func:`read` blocks.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. data:: TFD_CLOEXEC
A flag for the :func:`timerfd_create` function,
If :const:`TFD_CLOEXEC` is set as a flag, set close-on-exec flag for new file
descriptor.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. data:: TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME
A flag for the :func:`timerfd_settime` and :func:`timerfd_settime_ns` functions.
If this flag is set, *initial* is interpreted as an absolute value on the
timer's clock (in UTC seconds or nanoseconds since the Unix Epoch).
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. data:: TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET
A flag for the :func:`timerfd_settime` and :func:`timerfd_settime_ns`
functions along with :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME`.
The timer is cancelled when the time of the underlying clock changes
discontinuously.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8
.. versionadded:: 3.13
Linux extended attributes
.. versionadded:: 3.3
These functions are all available on Linux only.
.. function:: getxattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)
Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute attribute for
path. attribute can be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the
:class:PathLike interface). If it is str, it is encoded with the filesystem
encoding.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd> and
:ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. audit-event:: os.getxattr path,attribute os.getxattr
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for path and attribute.
.. function:: listxattr(path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)
Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on path. The
attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the filesystem
encoding. If path is None, :func:listxattr will examine the current
directory.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd> and
:ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. audit-event:: os.listxattr path os.listxattr
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.15
os.listxattr(-1) now fails with OSError(errno.EBADF) rather than
listing extended attributes of the current directory.
.. function:: removexattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)
Removes the extended filesystem attribute attribute from path.
attribute should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the
:class:PathLike interface). If it is a string, it is encoded
with the :term:filesystem encoding and error handler.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd> and
:ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. audit-event:: os.removexattr path,attribute os.removexattr
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for path and attribute.
.. function:: setxattr(path, attribute, value, flags=0, *, follow_symlinks=True)
Set the extended filesystem attribute attribute on path to value.
attribute must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs (directly or
indirectly through the :class:PathLike interface). If it is a str,
it is encoded with the :term:filesystem encoding and error handler. flags may be
:data:XATTR_REPLACE or :data:XATTR_CREATE. If :data:XATTR_REPLACE is
given and the attribute does not exist, ENODATA will be raised.
If :data:XATTR_CREATE is given and the attribute already exists, the
attribute will not be created and EEXISTS will be raised.
This function can support :ref:specifying a file descriptor <path_fd> and
:ref:not following symlinks <follow_symlinks>.
.. note::
A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39 caused the flags argument
to be ignored on some filesystems.
.. audit-event:: os.setxattr path,attribute,value,flags os.setxattr
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object for path and attribute.
.. data:: XATTR_SIZE_MAX
The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be. Currently, this is 64 KiB on Linux.
.. data:: XATTR_CREATE
This is a possible value for the flags argument in :func:setxattr. It
indicates the operation must create an attribute.
.. data:: XATTR_REPLACE
This is a possible value for the flags argument in :func:setxattr. It
indicates the operation must replace an existing attribute.
.. _os-process:
These functions may be used to create and manage processes.
The various :func:exec\* <execl> functions take a list of arguments for the new
program loaded into the process. In each case, the first of these arguments is
passed to the new program as its own name rather than as an argument a user may
have typed on a command line. For the C programmer, this is the argv[0]
passed to a program's :c:func:main. For example, os.execv('/bin/echo', ['foo', 'bar']) will only print bar on standard output; foo will seem
to be ignored.
.. function:: abort()
Generate a :const:~signal.SIGABRT signal to the current process. On Unix, the default
behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows, the process immediately returns
an exit code of 3. Be aware that calling this function will not call the
Python signal handler registered for :const:~signal.SIGABRT with
:func:signal.signal.
.. function:: add_dll_directory(path)
Add a path to the DLL search path.
This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported
extension modules (the module itself is resolved through
:data:sys.path), and also by :mod:ctypes.
Remove the directory by calling close() on the returned object
or using it in a :keyword:with statement.
See the Microsoft documentation <https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5>_
for more information about how DLLs are loaded.
.. audit-event:: os.add_dll_directory path os.add_dll_directory
.. availability:: Windows.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
Previous versions of CPython would resolve DLLs using the default
behavior for the current process. This led to inconsistencies,
such as only sometimes searching :envvar:PATH or the current
working directory, and OS functions such as AddDllDirectory
having no effect.
In 3.8, the two primary ways DLLs are loaded now explicitly
override the process-wide behavior to ensure consistency. See the
:ref:`porting notes <bpo-36085-whatsnew>` for information on
updating libraries.
.. function:: execl(path, arg0, arg1, ...) execle(path, arg0, arg1, ..., env) execlp(file, arg0, arg1, ...) execlpe(file, arg0, arg1, ..., env) execv(path, args) execve(path, args, env) execvp(file, args) execvpe(file, args, env)
These functions all execute a new program, replacing the current process; they
do not return. On Unix, the new executable is loaded into the current process,
and will have the same process id as the caller. Errors will be reported as
:exc:OSError exceptions.
The current process is replaced immediately. Open file objects and
descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered
on these open files, you should flush them using
:func:~io.IOBase.flush or :func:os.fsync before calling an
:func:exec\* <execl> function.
The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:exec\* <execl> functions differ in how
command-line arguments are passed. The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest
to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the :func:!execl\*
functions. The "v" variants are good when the number of parameters is
variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the args
parameter. In either case, the arguments to the child process should start with
the name of the command being run, but this is not enforced.
The variants which include a "p" near the end (:func:execlp,
:func:execlpe, :func:execvp, and :func:execvpe) will use the
:envvar:PATH environment variable to locate the program file. When the
environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:exec\*e <execl> variants,
discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
the :envvar:PATH variable. The other variants, :func:execl, :func:execle,
:func:execv, and :func:execve, will not use the :envvar:PATH variable to
locate the executable; path must contain an appropriate absolute or relative
path. Relative paths must include at least one slash, even on Windows, as
plain names will not be resolved.
For :func:execle, :func:execlpe, :func:execve, and :func:execvpe (note
that these all end in "e"), the env parameter must be a mapping which is
used to define the environment variables for the new process (these are used
instead of the current process' environment); the functions :func:execl,
:func:execlp, :func:execv, and :func:execvp all cause the new process to
inherit the environment of the current process.
For :func:execve on some platforms, path may also be specified as an open
file descriptor. This functionality may not be supported on your platform;
you can check whether or not it is available using :data:os.supports_fd.
If it is unavailable, using it will raise a :exc:NotImplementedError.
.. audit-event:: os.exec path,args,env os.execl
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor
for :func:execve.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. function:: _exit(n)
Exit the process with status n, without calling cleanup handlers, flushing stdio buffers, etc.
.. note::
The standard way to exit is :func:`sys.exit(n) <sys.exit>`. :func:`!_exit` should
normally only be used in the child process after a :func:`fork`.
The following exit codes are defined and can be used with :func:_exit,
although they are not required. These are typically used for system programs
written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
.. note::
Some of these may not be available on all Unix platforms, since there is some variation. These constants are defined where they are defined by the underlying platform.
.. data:: EX_OK
Exit code that means no error occurred. May be taken from the defined value of
EXIT_SUCCESS on some platforms. Generally has a value of zero.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. data:: EX_USAGE
Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when the wrong number of arguments are given.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_DATAERR
Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_NOINPUT
Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not readable.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_NOUSER
Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_NOHOST
Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_UNAVAILABLE
Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_SOFTWARE
Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_OSERR
Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such as the inability to fork or create a pipe.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_OSFILE
Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be opened, or had some other kind of error.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_CANTCREAT
Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be created.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_IOERR
Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some file.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_TEMPFAIL
Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred. This indicates something that may not really be an error, such as a network connection that couldn't be made during a retryable operation.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_PROTOCOL
Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid, or not understood.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_NOPERM
Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to perform the operation (but not intended for file system problems).
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_CONFIG
Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error occurred.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. data:: EX_NOTFOUND
Exit code that means something like "an entry was not found".
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: fork()
Fork a child process. Return 0 in the child and the child's process id in the
parent. If an error occurs :exc:OSError is raised.
Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have
known issues when using fork() from a thread.
.. audit-event:: os.fork "" os.fork
.. warning::
If you use TLS sockets in an application calling ``fork()``, see
the warning in the :mod:`ssl` documentation.
.. warning::
On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed with using
higher-level system APIs, and that includes using :mod:`urllib.request`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Calling fork() in a subinterpreter is no longer supported
(:exc:RuntimeError is raised).
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
If Python is able to detect that your process has multiple
threads, :func:os.fork now raises a :exc:DeprecationWarning.
We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better
inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform
specifically notes as not supported. Even in code that
*appears* to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with
:func:`os.fork` on POSIX platforms. The CPython runtime itself has
always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child
process when threads existed in the parent (such as ``malloc`` and
``free``).
Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other
than those typically found in glibc to date are among those
already more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.
See `this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads
<https://discuss.python.org/t/33555>`_
for technical details of why we're surfacing this longstanding
platform compatibility problem to developers.
.. availability:: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: forkpty()
Fork a child process, using a new pseudo-terminal as the child's controlling
terminal. Return a pair of (pid, fd), where pid is 0 in the child, the
new child's process id in the parent, and fd is the file descriptor of the
master end of the pseudo-terminal. For a more portable approach, use the
:mod:pty module. If an error occurs :exc:OSError is raised.
The returned file descriptor fd is :ref:non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>.
.. audit-event:: os.forkpty "" os.forkpty
.. warning::
On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed with using
higher-level system APIs, and that includes using :mod:`urllib.request`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Calling forkpty() in a subinterpreter is no longer supported
(:exc:RuntimeError is raised).
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
If Python is able to detect that your process has multiple
threads, this now raises a :exc:DeprecationWarning. See the
longer explanation on :func:os.fork.
.. versionchanged:: 3.15 The returned file descriptor is now made non-inheritable.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: kill(pid, sig, /)
.. index:: single: process; killing single: process; signalling
Send signal sig to the process pid. Constants for the specific signals
available on the host platform are defined in the :mod:signal module.
Windows: The :const:signal.CTRL_C_EVENT and
:const:signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT signals are special signals which can
only be sent to console processes which share a common console window,
e.g., some subprocesses. Any other value for sig will cause the process
to be unconditionally killed by the TerminateProcess API, and the exit code
will be set to sig.
See also :func:signal.pthread_kill.
.. audit-event:: os.kill pid,sig os.kill
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2 Added Windows support.
.. function:: killpg(pgid, sig, /)
.. index:: single: process; killing single: process; signalling
Send the signal sig to the process group pgid.
.. audit-event:: os.killpg pgid,sig os.killpg
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
.. function:: nice(increment, /)
Add increment to the process's "niceness". Return the new niceness.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
.. function:: pidfd_open(pid, flags=0)
Return a file descriptor referring to the process pid with flags set. This descriptor can be used to perform process management without races and signals.
See the :manpage:pidfd_open(2) man page for more details.
.. availability:: Linux >= 5.3, Android >= :func:build-time <sys.getandroidapilevel> API level 31
.. versionadded:: 3.9
.. data:: PIDFD_NONBLOCK
This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be non-blocking.
If the process referred to by the file descriptor has not yet terminated,
then an attempt to wait on the file descriptor using :manpage:`waitid(2)`
will immediately return the error :const:`~errno.EAGAIN` rather than blocking.
.. availability:: Linux >= 5.10 .. versionadded:: 3.12
.. function:: plock(op, /)
Lock program segments into memory. The value of op (defined in
<sys/lock.h>) determines which segments are locked.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
.. function:: popen(cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)
Open a pipe to or from command cmd.
The return value is an open file object
connected to the pipe, which can be read or written depending on whether mode
is 'r' (default) or 'w'.
The buffering argument have the same meaning as
the corresponding argument to the built-in :func:open function. The
returned file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.
The close method returns :const:None if the subprocess exited
successfully, or the subprocess's return code if there was an
error. On POSIX systems, if the return code is positive it
represents the return value of the process left-shifted by one
byte. If the return code is negative, the process was terminated
by the signal given by the negated value of the return code. (For
example, the return value might be - signal.SIGKILL if the
subprocess was killed.) On Windows systems, the return value
contains the signed integer return code from the child process.
On Unix, :func:waitstatus_to_exitcode can be used to convert the close
method result (exit status) into an exit code if it is not None. On
Windows, the close method result is directly the exit code
(or None).
This is implemented using :class:subprocess.Popen; see that class's
documentation for more powerful ways to manage and communicate with
subprocesses.
.. availability:: not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. note::
The :ref:Python UTF-8 Mode <utf8-mode> affects encodings used
for cmd and pipe contents.
:func:`popen` is a simple wrapper around :class:`subprocess.Popen`.
Use :class:`subprocess.Popen` or :func:`subprocess.run` to
control options like encodings.
.. deprecated:: 3.14
The function is :term:soft deprecated and should no longer be used to
write new code. The :mod:subprocess module is recommended instead.
.. function:: posix_spawn(path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)
Wraps the :c:func:!posix_spawn C library API for use from Python.
Most users should use :func:subprocess.run instead of :func:posix_spawn.
The positional-only arguments path, args, and env are similar to
:func:execve. env is allowed to be None, in which case current
process' environment is used.
The path parameter is the path to the executable file. The path should
contain a directory. Use :func:posix_spawnp to pass an executable file
without directory.
The file_actions argument may be a sequence of tuples describing actions
to take on specific file descriptors in the child process between the C
library implementation's :c:func:fork and :c:func:exec steps.
The first item in each tuple must be one of the three type indicator
listed below describing the remaining tuple elements:
.. data:: POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN
(``os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN``, *fd*, *path*, *flags*, *mode*)
Performs ``os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd)``.
.. data:: POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE
(``os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE``, *fd*)
Performs ``os.close(fd)``.
.. data:: POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2
(``os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2``, *fd*, *new_fd*)
Performs ``os.dup2(fd, new_fd)``.
.. data:: POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM
(``os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM``, *fd*)
Performs ``os.closerange(fd, INF)``.
These tuples correspond to the C library
:c:func:!posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen,
:c:func:!posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose,
:c:func:!posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2, and
:c:func:!posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np API calls used to prepare
for the :c:func:!posix_spawn call itself.
The setpgroup argument will set the process group of the child to the value
specified. If the value specified is 0, the child's process group ID will be
made the same as its process ID. If the value of setpgroup is not set, the
child will inherit the parent's process group ID. This argument corresponds
to the C library :c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP flag.
If the resetids argument is True it will reset the effective UID and
GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent process. If the
argument is False, then the child retains the effective UID and GID of
the parent. In either case, if the set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission
bits are enabled on the executable file, their effect will override the
setting of the effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C
library :c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS flag.
If the setsid argument is True, it will create a new session ID
for posix_spawn. setsid requires :c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID
or :c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP flag. Otherwise, :exc:NotImplementedError
is raised.
The setsigmask argument will set the signal mask to the signal set
specified. If the parameter is not used, then the child inherits the
parent's signal mask. This argument corresponds to the C library
:c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK flag.
The sigdef argument will reset the disposition of all signals in the set
specified. This argument corresponds to the C library
:c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF flag.
The scheduler argument must be a tuple containing the (optional) scheduler
policy and an instance of :class:sched_param with the scheduler parameters.
A value of None in the place of the scheduler policy indicates that is
not being provided. This argument is a combination of the C library
:c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM and :c:macro:!POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER
flags.
.. audit-event:: os.posix_spawn path,argv,env os.posix_spawn
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
env parameter accepts None.
os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM is available on platforms where
:c:func:!posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np exists.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: posix_spawnp(path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)
Wraps the :c:func:!posix_spawnp C library API for use from Python.
Similar to :func:posix_spawn except that the system searches
for the executable file in the list of directories specified by the
:envvar:PATH environment variable (in the same way as for execvp(3)).
.. audit-event:: os.posix_spawn path,argv,env os.posix_spawnp
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. availability:: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
See :func:`posix_spawn` documentation.
.. function:: register_at_fork(*, before=None, after_in_parent=None,
after_in_child=None)
Register callables to be executed when a new child process is forked
using :func:os.fork or similar process cloning APIs.
The parameters are optional and keyword-only.
Each specifies a different call point.
These calls are only made if control is expected to return to the
Python interpreter. A typical :mod:subprocess launch will not
trigger them as the child is not going to re-enter the interpreter.
Functions registered for execution before forking are called in reverse registration order. Functions registered for execution after forking (either in the parent or in the child) are called in registration order.
Note that :c:func:fork calls made by third-party C code may not
call those functions, unless it explicitly calls :c:func:PyOS_BeforeFork,
:c:func:PyOS_AfterFork_Parent and :c:func:PyOS_AfterFork_Child.
There is no way to unregister a function.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. function:: spawnl(mode, path, ...) spawnle(mode, path, ..., env) spawnlp(mode, file, ...) spawnlpe(mode, file, ..., env) spawnv(mode, path, args) spawnve(mode, path, args, env) spawnvp(mode, file, args) spawnvpe(mode, file, args, env)
Execute the program path in a new process.
(Note that the :mod:subprocess module provides more powerful facilities for
spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is
preferable to using these functions. Check especially the
:ref:subprocess-replacements section.)
If mode is :const:P_NOWAIT, this function returns the process id of the new
process; if mode is :const:P_WAIT, returns the process's exit code if it
exits normally, or -signal, where signal is the signal that killed the
process. On Windows, the process id will actually be the process handle, so can
be used with the :func:waitpid function.
Note on VxWorks, this function doesn't return -signal when the new process is
killed. Instead it raises OSError exception.
The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> functions differ in how
command-line arguments are passed. The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest
to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the
individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the
:func:!spawnl\* functions. The "v" variants are good when the number of
parameters is variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as
the args parameter. In either case, the arguments to the child process must
start with the name of the command being run.
The variants which include a second "p" near the end (:func:spawnlp,
:func:spawnlpe, :func:spawnvp, and :func:spawnvpe) will use the
:envvar:PATH environment variable to locate the program file. When the
environment is being replaced (using one of the :func:spawn\*e <spawnl> variants,
discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of
the :envvar:PATH variable. The other variants, :func:spawnl,
:func:spawnle, :func:spawnv, and :func:spawnve, will not use the
:envvar:PATH variable to locate the executable; path must contain an
appropriate absolute or relative path.
For :func:spawnle, :func:spawnlpe, :func:spawnve, and :func:spawnvpe
(note that these all end in "e"), the env parameter must be a mapping
which is used to define the environment variables for the new process (they are
used instead of the current process' environment); the functions
:func:spawnl, :func:spawnlp, :func:spawnv, and :func:spawnvp all cause
the new process to inherit the environment of the current process. Note that
keys and values in the env dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or
values will cause the function to fail, with a return value of 127.
As an example, the following calls to :func:spawnlp and :func:spawnvpe are
equivalent::
import os
os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')
L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)
.. audit-event:: os.spawn mode,path,args,env os.spawnl
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
:func:`spawnlp`, :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnvp`
and :func:`spawnvpe` are not available on Windows. :func:`spawnle` and
:func:`spawnve` are not thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the
:mod:`subprocess` module instead.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:path-like object.
.. deprecated:: 3.14
These functions are :term:soft deprecated and should no longer be used
to write new code. The :mod:subprocess module is recommended instead.
.. data:: P_NOWAIT P_NOWAITO
Possible values for the mode parameter to the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> family of
functions. If either of these values is given, the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> functions
will return as soon as the new process has been created, with the process id as
the return value.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. data:: P_WAIT
Possible value for the mode parameter to the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> family of
functions. If this is given as mode, the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> functions will not
return until the new process has run to completion and will return the exit code
of the process the run is successful, or -signal if a signal kills the
process.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. data:: P_DETACH P_OVERLAY
Possible values for the mode parameter to the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> family of
functions. These are less portable than those listed above. :const:P_DETACH
is similar to :const:P_NOWAIT, but the new process is detached from the
console of the calling process. If :const:P_OVERLAY is used, the current
process will be replaced; the :func:spawn\* <spawnl> function will not return.
.. availability:: Windows.
.. function:: startfile(path, [operation], [arguments], [cwd], [show_cmd])
Start a file with its associated application.
When operation is not specified, this acts like double-clicking
the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an argument to the
:program:start command from the interactive command shell: the file is opened
with whatever application (if any) its extension is associated.
When another operation is given, it must be a "command verb" that specifies
what should be done with the file. Common verbs documented by Microsoft are 'open',
'print' and 'edit' (to be used on files) as well as 'explore' and
'find' (to be used on directories).
When launching an application, specify arguments to be passed as a single string. This argument may have no effect when using this function to launch a document.
The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden by the cwd argument. This should be an absolute path. A relative path will be resolved against this argument.
Use show_cmd to override the default window style. Whether this has any
effect will depend on the application being launched. Values are integers as
supported by the Win32 :c:func:!ShellExecute function.
:func:startfile returns as soon as the associated application is launched.
There is no option to wait for the application to close, and no way to retrieve
the application's exit status. The path parameter is relative to the current
directory or cwd. If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first
character is not a slash ('/') Use :mod:pathlib or the
:func:os.path.normpath function to ensure that paths are properly encoded for
Win32.
To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 :c:func:!ShellExecute
function is not resolved until this function is first called. If the function
cannot be resolved, :exc:NotImplementedError will be raised.
.. audit-event:: os.startfile path,operation os.startfile
.. audit-event:: os.startfile/2 path,operation,arguments,cwd,show_cmd os.startfile
.. availability:: Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Added the arguments, cwd and show_cmd arguments, and the
os.startfile/2 audit event.
.. function:: system(command)
Execute the command (a string) in a subshell. This is implemented by calling
the Standard C function :c:func:system, and has the same limitations.
Changes to :data:sys.stdin, etc. are not reflected in the environment of
the executed command. If command generates any output, it will be sent to
the interpreter standard output stream. The C standard does not
specify the meaning of the return value of the C function, so the return
value of the Python function is system-dependent.
On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded in the
format specified for :func:wait.
On Windows, the return value is that returned by the system shell after
running command. The shell is given by the Windows environment variable
:envvar:COMSPEC: it is usually :program:cmd.exe, which returns the exit
status of the command run; on systems using a non-native shell, consult your
shell documentation.
The :mod:subprocess module provides more powerful facilities for spawning
new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is recommended
to using this function. See the :ref:subprocess-replacements section in
the :mod:subprocess documentation for some helpful recipes.
On Unix, :func:waitstatus_to_exitcode can be used to convert the result
(exit status) into an exit code. On Windows, the result is directly the exit
code.
.. audit-event:: os.system command os.system
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: times()
Returns the current global process times. The return value is an object with five attributes:
!user - user time!system - system time!children_user - user time of all child processes!children_system - system time of all child processes!elapsed - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the pastFor backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a five-tuple
containing :attr:!user, :attr:!system, :attr:!children_user,
:attr:!children_system, and :attr:!elapsed in that order.
See the Unix manual page
:manpage:times(2) and times(3) <https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)>_ manual page on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN <https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes>_
on Windows. On Windows, only :attr:!user and :attr:!system are known; the other attributes are zero.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.
.. function:: wait()
Wait for completion of a child process, and return a tuple containing its pid and exit status indication: a 16-bit number, whose low byte is the signal number that killed the process, and whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal number is zero); the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was produced.
If there are no children that could be waited for, :exc:ChildProcessError
is raised.
:func:waitstatus_to_exitcode can be used to convert the exit status into an
exit code.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. seealso::
The other :func:`!wait*` functions documented below can be used to wait for the
completion of a specific child process and have more options.
:func:`waitpid` is the only one also available on Windows.
.. function:: waitid(idtype, id, options, /)
Wait for the completion of a child process.
idtype can be :data:P_PID, :data:P_PGID, :data:P_ALL, or (on Linux) :data:P_PIDFD.
The interpretation of id depends on it; see their individual descriptions.
options is an OR combination of flags. At least one of :data:WEXITED,
:data:WSTOPPED or :data:WCONTINUED is required;
:data:WNOHANG and :data:WNOWAIT are additional optional flags.
The return value is an object representing the data contained in the
:c:type:siginfo_t structure with the following attributes:
!si_pid (process ID)!si_uid (real user ID of the child)!si_signo (always :const:~signal.SIGCHLD)!si_status (the exit status or signal number, depending on :attr:!si_code)!si_code (see :data:CLD_EXITED for possible values)If :data:WNOHANG is specified and there are no matching children in the
requested state, None is returned.
Otherwise, if there are no matching children
that could be waited for, :exc:ChildProcessError is raised.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.13 This function is now available on macOS as well.
.. function:: waitpid(pid, options, /)
The details of this function differ on Unix and Windows.
On Unix: Wait for completion of a child process given by process id pid, and
return a tuple containing its process id and exit status indication (encoded as
for :func:wait). The semantics of the call are affected by the value of the
integer options, which should be 0 for normal operation.
If pid is greater than 0, :func:waitpid requests status information for
that specific process. If pid is 0, the request is for the status of any
child in the process group of the current process. If pid is -1, the
request pertains to any child of the current process. If pid is less than
-1, status is requested for any process in the process group -pid (the
absolute value of pid).
options is an OR combination of flags. If it contains :data:WNOHANG and
there are no matching children in the requested state, (0, 0) is
returned. Otherwise, if there are no matching children that could be waited
for, :exc:ChildProcessError is raised. Other options that can be used are
:data:WUNTRACED and :data:WCONTINUED.
On Windows: Wait for completion of a process given by process handle pid, and
return a tuple containing pid, and its exit status shifted left by 8 bits
(shifting makes cross-platform use of the function easier). A pid less than or
equal to 0 has no special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception. The
value of integer options has no effect. pid can refer to any process whose
id is known, not necessarily a child process. The :func:spawn\* <spawnl>
functions called with :const:P_NOWAIT return suitable process handles.
:func:waitstatus_to_exitcode can be used to convert the exit status into an
exit code.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an
:exc:InterruptedError exception (see :pep:475 for the rationale).
.. function:: wait3(options)
Similar to :func:waitpid, except no process id argument is given and a
3-element tuple containing the child's process id, exit status indication,
and resource usage information is returned. Refer to
:func:resource.getrusage for details on resource usage information. The
options argument is the same as that provided to :func:waitpid and
:func:wait4.
:func:waitstatus_to_exitcode can be used to convert the exit status into an
exitcode.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: wait4(pid, options)
Similar to :func:waitpid, except a 3-element tuple, containing the child's
process id, exit status indication, and resource usage information is
returned. Refer to :func:resource.getrusage for details on resource usage
information. The arguments to :func:wait4 are the same as those provided
to :func:waitpid.
:func:waitstatus_to_exitcode can be used to convert the exit status into an
exitcode.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: P_PID P_PGID P_ALL P_PIDFD
These are the possible values for idtype in :func:waitid. They affect
how id is interpreted:
!P_PID - wait for the child whose PID is id.!P_PGID - wait for any child whose progress group ID is id.!P_ALL - wait for any child; id is ignored.!P_PIDFD - wait for the child identified by the file descriptor
id (a process file descriptor created with :func:pidfd_open)... availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. note:: :data:!P_PIDFD is only available on Linux >= 5.4.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionadded:: 3.9
The :data:!P_PIDFD constant.
.. data:: WCONTINUED
This options flag for :func:waitpid, :func:wait3, :func:wait4, and
:func:waitid causes child processes to be reported if they have been
continued from a job control stop since they were last reported.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: WEXITED
This options flag for :func:waitid causes child processes that have terminated to
be reported.
The other wait* functions always report children that have terminated,
so this option is not available for them.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: WSTOPPED
This options flag for :func:waitid causes child processes that have been stopped
by the delivery of a signal to be reported.
This option is not available for the other wait* functions.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. data:: WUNTRACED
This options flag for :func:waitpid, :func:wait3, and :func:wait4 causes
child processes to also be reported if they have been stopped but their
current state has not been reported since they were stopped.
This option is not available for :func:waitid.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: WNOHANG
This options flag causes :func:waitpid, :func:wait3, :func:wait4, and
:func:waitid to return right away if no child process status is available
immediately.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: WNOWAIT
This options flag causes :func:waitid to leave the child in a waitable state, so that
a later :func:!wait* call can be used to retrieve the child status information again.
This option is not available for the other wait* functions.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: CLD_EXITED CLD_KILLED CLD_DUMPED CLD_TRAPPED CLD_STOPPED CLD_CONTINUED
These are the possible values for :attr:!si_code in the result returned by
:func:waitid.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added :data:CLD_KILLED and :data:CLD_STOPPED values.
.. function:: waitstatus_to_exitcode(status)
Convert a wait status to an exit code.
On Unix:
WIFEXITED(status) is true),
return the process exit status (return WEXITSTATUS(status)):
result greater than or equal to 0.WIFSIGNALED(status) is
true), return -signum where signum is the number of the signal that
caused the process to terminate (return -WTERMSIG(status)):
result less than 0.ValueError.On Windows, return status shifted right by 8 bits.
On Unix, if the process is being traced or if :func:waitpid was called
with :data:WUNTRACED option, the caller must first check if
WIFSTOPPED(status) is true. This function must not be called if
WIFSTOPPED(status) is true.
.. seealso::
:func:`WIFEXITED`, :func:`WEXITSTATUS`, :func:`WIFSIGNALED`,
:func:`WTERMSIG`, :func:`WIFSTOPPED`, :func:`WSTOPSIG` functions.
.. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
The following functions take a process status code as returned by
:func:system, :func:wait, or :func:waitpid as a parameter. They may be
used to determine the disposition of a process.
.. function:: WCOREDUMP(status, /)
Return True if a core dump was generated for the process, otherwise
return False.
This function should be employed only if :func:WIFSIGNALED is true.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFCONTINUED(status)
Return True if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of
:const:~signal.SIGCONT (if the process has been continued from a job
control stop), otherwise return False.
See :data:WCONTINUED option.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFSTOPPED(status)
Return True if the process was stopped by delivery of a signal,
otherwise return False.
:func:WIFSTOPPED only returns True if the :func:waitpid call was
done using :data:WUNTRACED option or when the process is being traced (see
:manpage:ptrace(2)).
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFSIGNALED(status)
Return True if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise return
False.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFEXITED(status)
Return True if the process exited terminated normally, that is,
by calling exit() or _exit(), or by returning from main();
otherwise return False.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WEXITSTATUS(status)
Return the process exit status.
This function should be employed only if :func:WIFEXITED is true.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WSTOPSIG(status)
Return the signal which caused the process to stop.
This function should be employed only if :func:WIFSTOPPED is true.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WTERMSIG(status)
Return the number of the signal that caused the process to terminate.
This function should be employed only if :func:WIFSIGNALED is true.
.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating system. They are only available on some Unix platforms. For more detailed information, consult your Unix manpages.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by the operating system.
.. _os-scheduling-policy:
.. data:: SCHED_OTHER
The default scheduling policy.
.. data:: SCHED_BATCH
Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to preserve interactivity on the rest of the computer.
.. data:: SCHED_DEADLINE
Scheduling policy for tasks with deadline constraints.
.. versionadded:: 3.14
.. data:: SCHED_IDLE
Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks.
.. data:: SCHED_NORMAL
Alias for :data:SCHED_OTHER.
.. versionadded:: 3.14
.. data:: SCHED_SPORADIC
Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs.
.. data:: SCHED_FIFO
A First In First Out scheduling policy.
.. data:: SCHED_RR
A round-robin scheduling policy.
.. data:: SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK
This flag can be OR'ed with any other scheduling policy. When a process with this flag set forks, its child's scheduling policy and priority are reset to the default.
.. class:: sched_param(sched_priority)
This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in
:func:sched_setparam, :func:sched_setscheduler, and
:func:sched_getparam. It is immutable.
At the moment, there is only one possible parameter:
.. attribute:: sched_priority
The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy.
.. function:: sched_get_priority_min(policy)
Get the minimum priority value for policy. policy is one of the scheduling policy constants above.
.. function:: sched_get_priority_max(policy)
Get the maximum priority value for policy. policy is one of the scheduling policy constants above.
.. function:: sched_setscheduler(pid, policy, param, /)
Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID pid. A pid of 0 means
the calling process. policy is one of the scheduling policy constants
above. param is a :class:sched_param instance.
.. function:: sched_getscheduler(pid, /)
Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID pid. A pid of 0 means the calling process. The result is one of the scheduling policy constants above.
.. function:: sched_setparam(pid, param, /)
Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID pid. A pid of 0 means
the calling process. param is a :class:sched_param instance.
.. function:: sched_getparam(pid, /)
Return the scheduling parameters as a :class:sched_param instance for the
process with PID pid. A pid of 0 means the calling process.
.. function:: sched_rr_get_interval(pid, /)
Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID pid. A pid of 0 means the calling process.
.. function:: sched_yield()
Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See :manpage:sched_yield(2) for details.
.. function:: sched_setaffinity(pid, mask, /)
Restrict the process with PID pid (or the current process if zero) to a set of CPUs. mask is an iterable of integers representing the set of CPUs to which the process should be restricted.
.. function:: sched_getaffinity(pid, /)
Return the set of CPUs the process with PID pid is restricted to.
If pid is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the current process is restricted to.
See also the :func:process_cpu_count function.
.. _os-path:
.. function:: confstr(name, /)
Return string-valued system configuration values. name specifies the
configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is the name of a
defined system value; these names are specified in a number of standards (POSIX,
Unix 95, Unix 98, and others). Some platforms define additional names as well.
The names known to the host operating system are given as the keys of the
confstr_names dictionary. For configuration variables not included in that
mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted.
If the configuration value specified by name isn't defined, None is
returned.
If name is a string and is not known, :exc:ValueError is raised. If a
specific value for name is not supported by the host system, even if it is
included in confstr_names, an :exc:OSError is raised with
:const:errno.EINVAL for the error number.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. data:: confstr_names
Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:confstr to the integer values
defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
determine the set of names known to the system.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: cpu_count()
Return the number of logical CPUs in the system. Returns None if
undetermined.
The :func:process_cpu_count function can be used to get the number of
logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the current process.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
If :option:-X cpu_count <-X> is given or :envvar:PYTHON_CPU_COUNT is set,
:func:cpu_count returns the override value n.
.. function:: getloadavg()
Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged over the last
1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises :exc:OSError if the load average was
unobtainable.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. function:: process_cpu_count()
Get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the current
process. Returns None if undetermined. It can be less than
:func:cpu_count depending on the CPU affinity.
The :func:cpu_count function can be used to get the number of logical CPUs
in the system.
If :option:-X cpu_count <-X> is given or :envvar:PYTHON_CPU_COUNT is set,
:func:process_cpu_count returns the override value n.
See also the :func:sched_getaffinity function.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. function:: sysconf(name, /)
Return integer-valued system configuration values. If the configuration value
specified by name isn't defined, -1 is returned. The comments regarding
the name parameter for :func:confstr apply here as well; the dictionary that
provides information on the known names is given by sysconf_names.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. data:: sysconf_names
Dictionary mapping names accepted by :func:sysconf to the integer values
defined for those names by the host operating system. This can be used to
determine the set of names known to the system.
.. availability:: Unix.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Add 'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ' name.
The following data values are used to support path manipulation operations. These are defined for all platforms.
Higher-level operations on pathnames are defined in the :mod:os.path module.
.. index:: single: . (dot); in pathnames .. data:: curdir
The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the current
directory. This is '.' for Windows and POSIX. Also available via
:mod:os.path.
.. index:: single: ..; in pathnames .. data:: pardir
The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the parent
directory. This is '..' for Windows and POSIX. Also available via
:mod:os.path.
.. index:: single: / (slash); in pathnames .. index:: single: \ (backslash); in pathnames (Windows) .. data:: sep
The character used by the operating system to separate pathname components.
This is '/' for POSIX and '\\' for Windows. Note that knowing this
is not sufficient to be able to parse or concatenate pathnames --- use
:func:os.path.split and :func:os.path.join --- but it is occasionally
useful. Also available via :mod:os.path.
.. index:: single: / (slash); in pathnames .. data:: altsep
An alternative character used by the operating system to separate pathname
components, or None if only one separator character exists. This is set to
'/' on Windows systems where sep is a backslash. Also available via
:mod:os.path.
.. index:: single: . (dot); in pathnames .. data:: extsep
The character which separates the base filename from the extension; for example,
the '.' in :file:os.py. Also available via :mod:os.path.
.. index:: single: : (colon); path separator (POSIX) single: ; (semicolon) .. data:: pathsep
The character conventionally used by the operating system to separate search
path components (as in :envvar:PATH), such as ':' for POSIX or ';' for
Windows. Also available via :mod:os.path.
.. data:: defpath
The default search path used by :func:exec\*p\* <execl> and
:func:spawn\*p\* <spawnl> if the environment doesn't have a 'PATH'
key. Also available via :mod:os.path.
.. data:: linesep
The string used to separate (or, rather, terminate) lines on the current
platform. This may be a single character, such as '\n' for POSIX, or
multiple characters, for example, '\r\n' for Windows. Do not use
os.linesep as a line terminator when writing files opened in text mode (the
default); use a single '\n' instead, on all platforms.
.. data:: devnull
The file path of the null device. For example: '/dev/null' for
POSIX, 'nul' for Windows. Also available via :mod:os.path.
.. data:: RTLD_LAZY RTLD_NOW RTLD_GLOBAL RTLD_LOCAL RTLD_NODELETE RTLD_NOLOAD RTLD_DEEPBIND
Flags for use with the :func:~sys.setdlopenflags and
:func:~sys.getdlopenflags functions. See the Unix manual page
:manpage:dlopen(3) for what the different flags mean.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. function:: getrandom(size, flags=0)
Get up to size random bytes. The function can return less bytes than requested.
These bytes can be used to seed user-space random number generators or for cryptographic purposes.
getrandom() relies on entropy gathered from device drivers and other
sources of environmental noise. Unnecessarily reading large quantities of
data will have a negative impact on other users of the /dev/random and
/dev/urandom devices.
The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of the
following values ORed together: :py:const:os.GRND_RANDOM and
:py:data:GRND_NONBLOCK.
See also the Linux getrandom() manual page <https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html>_.
.. availability:: Linux >= 3.17.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. function:: urandom(size, /)
Return a bytestring of size random bytes suitable for cryptographic use.
This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness source. The returned data should be unpredictable enough for cryptographic applications, though its exact quality depends on the OS implementation.
On Linux, if the getrandom() syscall is available, it is used in
blocking mode: block until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized
(128 bits of entropy are collected by the kernel). See the :pep:524 for
the rationale. On Linux, the :func:getrandom function can be used to get
random bytes in non-blocking mode (using the :data:GRND_NONBLOCK flag) or
to poll until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized.
On a Unix-like system, random bytes are read from the /dev/urandom
device. If the /dev/urandom device is not available or not readable, the
:exc:NotImplementedError exception is raised.
On Windows, it will use BCryptGenRandom().
.. seealso::
The :mod:secrets module provides higher level functions. For an
easy-to-use interface to the random number generator provided by your
platform, please see :class:random.SystemRandom.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
On Linux 3.17 and newer, the getrandom() syscall is now used
when available. On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, the C getentropy()
function is now used. These functions avoid the usage of an internal file
descriptor.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
On Linux, if the getrandom() syscall blocks (the urandom entropy pool
is not initialized yet), fall back on reading /dev/urandom.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
On Linux, getrandom() is now used in blocking mode to increase the
security.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
On Windows, BCryptGenRandom() is used instead of CryptGenRandom()
which is deprecated.
.. data:: GRND_NONBLOCK
By default, when reading from /dev/random, :func:getrandom blocks if
no random bytes are available, and when reading from /dev/urandom, it blocks
if the entropy pool has not yet been initialized.
If the :py:data:GRND_NONBLOCK flag is set, then :func:getrandom does not
block in these cases, but instead immediately raises :exc:BlockingIOError.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. data:: GRND_RANDOM
If this bit is set, then random bytes are drawn from the
/dev/random pool instead of the /dev/urandom pool.
.. versionadded:: 3.6